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COEXRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



THE PRESCRIPTION 



BY THE SAME AUTHOR 
Handbook of Pharmacognosy 

By O. A. Wall, Ph.C, M.D. 650 pages. 6x9. 
with 460 illustrations. . Price, cloth, 84.50, 
Fourth edition, revised and enlarged. A 
valuable book (or students in colleges of 
pharmacy, for students preparing for state 
board of pharmacy examinations, and for the 
everyday exigenci.es of the pharmacist. 

Lessons in Latin 

By O. A. Wall, Ph.C, M.D. 148 pages, 6x9 
Price, cloth, $1.50. Second revised edition 
This is a valuable book for physicians, nurses 
pharmacists, and anyone who wishes to ac 
quire a knowledge of medical and pharma 
ceutical Latin. It is especially adapted for 
classroom as well as self-study. 



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THE PRESCBIPTION 

THERAPEUTICALLY, PHAI^MACEUTICALLY, GRAMMATICALLY AND 
HISTORICALLY CONSIDERED 



BY 

OTTO A. WALL, Ph.G., M.D. 
n 

Professor of Materia Medica, Pharmacognosy and Botany in the St. Louis College of 

Pharmacy; Member of the Committee for Revision of the Pharmacopoeia of the United 

States, 1880-1890 and 1890-1900; Second Vice-President of the Convention for the 

Revision of the United States Pharmacopoeia from 1900-1910; Presiding 

Officer of the United States Pharmacopoeia Convention of 1910; One of 

the Authors of the "Companion to the United States Pharmacopoeia;" 

Author of "Handbook of Pharmacognosy," "Lessons in Latin," etc. 



FOURTH AND REVISED EDITION 



ST. LOUIS 
C. V. MOSBY COMPANY 

1917 






Copyright, 1917, By C. V. Mosby Company 



APR 17 1918 
©CI.A494639 



Press of 

C. V. Mosby Company 

St. Louis 



PREFACE TO FOURTH EDITION 



This book has been out of print for some years, but the de- 
mand for it continued, so that it was thought proper to reissue 
it. For this purpose parts of it have been rewritten and ampli- 
fied, and it is now presented in better shape, with larger type 
and larger pages, so that it is a far more attractive book than in 
the three preceding editions. 

Students of medicine and of pharmacy who desire to acquire 
a complete knowledge of what a prescription was, is, and should 
be, will find all the necessary information on this subject in 
these pages. Practitioners of medicine and pharmacists will 
find it of great interest and they will find many suggestions that 
will be of use to them. Of especial value and interest is the 
section on the use of the metric system in prescribing, and easy 
methods of acquiring the ability to write correct prescriptions 
of this kind are thoroughly explained. 

The aim, expressed in the preface to the second edition, to 
make this book fairly exhaustive of the subject, has been steadily 
kept in mind, and this edition, more thoroughly than any previous 
one, fulfills the original ambition of the author. 

The publishers have been anxious to make the book as perfect 
from the typographical standpoint as possible, and "The Pre- 
scription" as now presented to the medical public, is all that the 
author hoped to make it. 

0. A. WALL. 

St. Louis, Mo., 1917. 



PREFACE TO THIRD EDITION 



The second edition of this work having become exhausted, a third 
edition becomes necessary. In previous editions Part I was based 
on the Pharmacopoeia of 1880 ; this part has been rewritten and 
rearranged, so that now it applies to no particular edition of any 
pharmacopoeia, but treats of general principles only. This change 
makes the book more valuable and will be appreciated as an im- 
provement on previous editions. 

0. A. WALL. 



PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION 



The first edition of this work met with a very favorable recep- 
tion, and is now exhausted. The reviews in the medical and phar- 
maceutical journals, have been uniformly favorable, and in some 
of them I have found suggestions for which I feel grateful and 
which I have utilized in this second edition. 

Especially have I thus been led to attempt a short History of the 
Prescription which forms Part "V of this volume, and which, I hope, 
may prove of interest. 

I have aimed to make the book fairly exhaustive of the subject 
and believe that all important facts referring to the Prescription 
may be found in it. 

In offering this, the second edition of "The Prescription", I 
would bespeak for it the same kind reception that was accorded the 
first edition. 

0. A. WALL. 



PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION 



A theoretical and practical knowledge of the construction of the 
prescription is of great importance to the physician as well as to 
the pharmacist, as it is so important a feature in the daily life of 
each. 

A knowledge of prescription writing is of importance to the phy- 
sician, because the style of his prescription is usually considered to 
furnish a fair index or gauge to his professional accomplishments 
and knowledge. And generally it is, perhaps, but fair to assume 
that the physician who is neat, careful, and correct in writing his 
prescriptions is also careful and painstaking in the examination and 
treatment of his patients, while he who is slovenly and careless in 
writing his prescriptions will probably allow the same characteris- 
tics to prevail in his treatment. 

Correct prescription writing is an accomplishment which is to the 
physician what elegant clothes are to a gentleman, or a handsome 
frame to a fine painting. If it is not an essential part of his educa- 
tion, it at least displays his other acquirements to best advantage. 

A thorough knowledge of the prescription in all its relations is 
equally important to the pharmacist, as such knowledge raises him 
in the estimation of those physicians with whom he comes in pro- 
fessional or social contact. It also makes him a better dispensing 
pharmacist. 

It is hoped that the following treatise on the prescription may 
prove of interest as well as profit to the readers, and that it may 
aid, in however humble a way, to promote the cause of medical and 
pharmaceutical education. 

0. A. WALL. 



CONTENTS 



PART I 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 

Meaning of ' ' Prescription, " 13 ; Simple and Compound Prescriptions, 14 ; 
Classification of Prescriptions, 14 ; Permanent Prescriptions, 14 ; " Offi- 
cial ' ' and ' ' Officinal ' ' Prescriptions, 15 ; Importance of Knowing These 
Preparations, 15; Abstracts, 16; Capsules, 17; Cerates, 17; Collodions, 
17; Confections, 18; Decoctions, 18; Elixirs, 19; Emulsions, 20; Extracts, 
20 ; Fluid Extracts, 21 ; Glycerites, 21 ; Honeys, 22 ; Infusions, 22 ; Juices, 
22; Liniments, 23; Liquid Extracts, 23; Masses, 24; Mixtures, 24; Oint- 
ments, 24; Oleates, 25; Oleoresins, 25; Papers, 25; Pills, 25; Plasters, 27; 
Powders, 27; Resins, 28; Solutions, 28; "Species," 28; Spirits, 30; Sup- 
positories, 30 ; Syrups, 30 ; Tinctures, 30 ; Tinctures of Fresh Herbs, 31 ; 
Triturations, 31 ; Troches, 31 ; Vinegars, 32 ; Waters, 33 ; Wines, 33 ; Many 
Other Preparations, 33 ; Patent and Proprietary Preparations, 34 ; " Spec- 
ifying ' ' in Prescriptions, 36 ; Form of Formulas, 39 ; For Sick Intestines, 
40 ; Pilulas Ferri Iodidi, 40. 

PART II 

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 

System of Numeration, 43; Oldberg's Proposed System of Weights and Meas- 
ures, 46 ; Avoirdupois Weight, 50 ; Troy Weight, 52 ; Apothecaries ' Weight, 
54 ; Using Only Grain Weights, 59 ; Liquid Measure, 62 ; Apothecaries ' 
Liquid Measure, 63 ; Linear Measure, 64 ; Metric System, 64 ; Necessity of 
an International Decimal System of Weights, 64; The Metric System, 67; 
' ' Parts ' ' in Formulas, 81 ; " Per Cent ' ' Formulas, 83 ; Formulas by Pro- 
portions, S4; Approximate Measures, 84. 

PART III 

LANGUAGE 

Advantage of Latin Language, 88 ; Grammatical Construction of Prescriptions, 
90 ; Adjectives, 91 ; Prepositions, Adverbs, and Conjunctions, 91 ; Declen- 
sions, 92 ; Indeclinable Nouns, 102 ; Adjectives, 103 ; Numeral Adjectives, 
105 ; Participles, 108 ; List of Nouns and Adjectives, 108 ; Verbs, 118 ; 
Adverbs, 120 ; Parts of Prescription, 121 ; Construction of Prescription, 

11 



12 CONTENTS 

121; Nomenclature, 122; Latin Nomenclature, 126; Abbreviations, 132,- 
Latin Phrases, 136; Latin Words, Phrases and Abbreviations, 138. 

PART IV 

EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 

Preliminary Considerations, 161 ; Prescription Blanks, 162 ; Writing, 162 ; The 
Date, 164 ; Name of the Patient, 165 ; Charity Patients, 165 ; Prescriptions 
for Emergency Cases, 165; Physician's Address, 166; About Repetitions, 
166; The Prescription, 166; The Base, 171; Adjuvant, 172; Corrective, or 
Directive, 175; Excipient, 178; The Diluent, 180; Combination of Rem- 
edies, 183 ; Subscription and Signature, 187 ; Doses, 187 ; Apparent Dis- 
crepancy in Stating Doses, 189 ; Prescribing, 191 ; Influences Modifying 
Action of Medicines, 196 ; Incompatibles, 198 ; Special Preparations, 204 ; 
Species, 204; Powders, 207; Powder in Bulk, 208; Powders in Divided 
Doses, 209 ; Confections, 212 ; Pills, 212 ; Tablet, Lozenge, or Troche, 218 ; 
Suppositories, 219; Plasters, 219; Cerate, 220; Ointment, 220; Papers, 
220 ; Liquid Preparations, 221 ; Official, Officinal, and Proprietary Liquid 
Preparations, 222 ; Solutions, 223 ; Neutral Mixtures, 225 ; Infusions, 226 ; 
Decoctions, 227; Mixtures, 227; Emulsions, 228; Rectal Injections, 231; 
Liniments, 231; Repetitions, 232; Concluding Remarks, 233; Keeping a 
Case Book, 233. 

PART V 

HISTORY OF THE PRESCRIPTION 

Medicine Men Among Primitive People, 238; Early Sculptures Recording 
Cures, 239; Thoth, Egyptian God of Medicine, 239; Specializing Among 
Ancient Egyptians, 240 ; Antiquity of Pharmacy as a Specialty, 240 ; Hip- 
pocratic Books, 242 ; Superstition in Medical Practice, 243 ; The Gnostic 
Influence, 244 ; Word Charms, ' ' Abracadabra, Amen, Sabaoth, ' ' etc., 245 ; 
Abraxas Charms and Amulets, 246; Alchemy, 250; Mohammedan Cere- 
monial Mortar, 255; Sympathetic Remedies, 256; Influence of Arabian- 
Thought on Modern Prescription, 257; Early European Drugstores, 260. 

APPENDIX 

Survival of Early Superstitious Practices, 263 ; Oldest Prescriptions had no 
Superscription Limitations on Practice of Medicine in Nero 's Time, 265 ; 
Invocation of Jupiter, 265 ; Magic Introduced in Medicine by Krinas, 265 ; 
Modern Invocations on Prescriptions, 266 ; The Sign R a Survival of the 
Jupiter Invocation, 266. 



n 



PART I 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 

Meaning of "Prescription/' 

The word "prescription" is derived from the Latin word prce- 
scriptum, which in turn is derived from prcescriptus, a, um, the 
perfect participle of the verb prcescribo, prcescribere, compounded 
from the preposition prcc, meaning "before," and the verb scribo, 
meaning "I write." 

The word prcescriptum, therefore, means "that which is written 
before," and the word "prescription" means a formula or recipe 
which is written before, or prescribed, for the guidance of any one 
to follow in compounding any preparation. 

Strictly speaking, the Latin word prcescriptio, onis, f., means a 
heading or title, or "copy" in the sense in which the word is used 
by the printer; while the word prcescriptum, i, n., means a pre- 
scription in the sense in which we use that word. 

The word receptum, i, n., also means a prescription (recipe or re- 
ceipt), and is derived from the verb recepto, 1, to accept, to take up, 
and refers to the fact that it is generally adopted or taken up in 
books. It has the same meaning as the word "formula" {formula, 
ce, I., a diminutive of forma, ce, f.), which means a prescription or 
working directions ; literally, a ' ' little form " to go by. 

The term "prescription" is generally applied only to directions 
given by a physician for the compounding of medicines for a patient, 
but is really equally applicable to written directions for the mak- 
ing of a dish of food, or a preparation for technical purposes. In 
a general sense, any directions given by the physician for the guid- 
ance of his patient are called prescriptions ; or, rather, it is said 



14 THE PRESCRIPTION 

the physician prescribed, for example, change of climate, an ocean 
trip, abstinence from tobacco or alcoholic drinks, or rest, or exer- 
cise, or a certain diet, etc. But in the sense in which the medical 
and pharmaceutical professions ordinarily employ the term pre- 
scription, it means the written direction to the pharmacist for pre- 
paring medicines to be administered to the patients ; or, in a more 
popular sense, the whole paper on which the directions are writ- 
ten is called a prescription. 

We will use the term "prescription" in the sense in which it is 
usually understood by the medical and pharmaceutical professions, 
although under the heading of "Extemporaneous Prescriptions" 
we must also consider it in its more popular sense, and refer to 
some other matters, besides the prescription itself, which are usual- 
ly written on the paper. 

Simple and Compound Prescriptions. 

Prescriptions, in the sense of being written directions for com- 
pounding medicines, are sometimes classed as "simple" and "com- 
pound," the former of which means a prescription for a single 
ingredient, as when the physician prescribes a bottle of solution of 
magnesium citrate, a certain number of cathartic pills, tincture of 
ferric chloride, or any other medicine expressed by writing a single 
name ; while the compound prescription is one in which two or 
more ingredients are ordered, which are to be combined or com- 
pounded by the pharmacist. 

While this classification has some practical applications, it is of 
little importance, and is not generally adopted by writers on this 
subject. It is mentioned here simply for the sake of completeness, 
so that the terms may be understood when met with in the course of 
reading journals or other works where they might occur. 

Classification op Prescriptions. 

Another method of classifying prescriptions, which is of more 
practical value than the above, is that of dividing them into perma- 
nent and extemporaneous prescriptions. 

Permanent Prescriptions. 

are contained in authoritative or recognized standard works, such 
as the pharmacopoeias or dispensatories. 



general considerations 15 

"Official" and "Officinal" Prescriptions. 

"When a formula is contained in a pharmacopoeia, which is pub- 
lished by authority granted to a commission or committee appointed 
for that purpose by the government of a country, or, as in our 
own country, by a convention of delegates from incorporated med- 
ical and pharmaceutical associations and teaching colleges, it is 
called an "official" formula, meaning that it is done by authority. 
Of course, it must be understood that such a formula is official 
only in the country in which the respective pharmacopoeia is the 
accepted authority, while in other countries, if used at all, it is 
only officinal. 

Official preparations are also called pharmacopoeial, which means 
the same thing. Pharmacopoeial or official preparations are made, 
or should be made, of the same strength throughout the land in 
which the pharmacopoeia is the authoritative standard, and such 
preparations are therefore more generally obtainable and more 
reliable than others which are not official. 

"When, however, the formula is contained in such works as the 
dispensatories, or any of the numerous formularies, it is called an 
"officinal" prescription or formula, meaning that the preparation 
is an approved medicine kept in apothecary shops. The word is 
derived from the Latin word officina, which means "a shop" or, 
by usage, "an apothecary shop." 

Many writers make no distinction between the two words, using 
them indiscriminately, or using only the term "officinal." 

The term "unofficial" has come into general use, to designate 
the formulas for those preparations which are in general use as 
substitutes for the elegant pharmaceutical specialties put up by 
various firms, such as formulas for elixirs, syrups, etc. When these 
are contained in the National Formulary they are also designated 
as "N. F." formulas or preparations. 

Permanent prescriptions include all formulas for standard ga- 
lenical preparations, as well as for the thousand-and-one miscella- 
neous articles which are usually sold in drug stores, such as toilet 
preparations, perfumes, popular remedies, etc. 

Importance of Knowing These Preparations. 

All other things being equal, that physician will be most success- 
ful in practice who has the most thorough knowledge of materia 



16 THE PRESCRIPTION 

medica, and is familiar not only with a large number of drugs, but 
also with a great variety of forms in which to dispense them. It 
enables the physician to adapt his treatment to the peculiarities of 
his patients, if need be, as well as to the ever-changing forms of 
disease, and gives him the same advantage in regard to the fickle 
and capricious likes and dislikes of the individual that is possessed 
by the thrifty housewife, who, with a little cornmeal, butter, eggs 
and milk, knows how to serve a number of appetizing dishes — gruel, 
cakes, pudding, biscuits, etc., while another, with the same materials, 
knows only how to make the monotonous corn bread, which, however 
good in itself, becomes disagreeable on account of the want of 
change. That physician who, by virtue of his better pharmaceu- 
tical knowledge, avoids a prescription routine, and shows variety 
in his remedies as well as in the form of his remedies, will find that 
he has an advantage which is not easily overestimated. 

We will, therefore, consider in these pages the various forms in 
which remedies may be prescribed and dispensed. 

Abstracts (Abstractum, i, n.). 

This name is derived from abstractus, a, urn, the perfect participle 
of the verb abstralio, xi, ctum, meaning to draw from. The word 
means, according to Webster, ' ' that whieh comprises or concentrates 
in itself the essential qualities of a larger thing. ' ' 

Many, perhaps most, of the advantages of the fluid extracts are 
offered by the abstracts, these preparations having a definite per- 
centage relation to the crude drugs from which they are made. 
They are made by totally exhausting the drug with a proper men- 
struum, adding a certain quantity of sugar of milk, varying accord- 
ing to the amount of extractive matter in the drug, and then evap- 
orating to dryness. Then enough sugar of milk is added to make 
the product weigh just one-half as much as the crude drug weighed, 
and the whole is finally reduced to an impalpable powder. 

Abstracts are, in fact, powdered extracts of uniformly twice the 
strength and half the dose of the corresponding fluid extracts. 
They possess many pharmaceutical, and a number of therapeutical, 
advantages over, many other of the solid preparations of the same 
drugs, but unfortunately have the disadvantage that some of them 
are very liable to cake or become solid. 

For the prescriber the definite relation of its dose to that of the 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 17 

corresponding fluid extract (or of the drug itself) is important, for, 
while each solid or powdered extract has a different relative dose, 
as compared with that of the fluid extract, the abstract is given in 
just half the dose, and it is almost instantly soluble and, therefore, 
equally as easily absorbed as the fluid, extract, but has the advan- 
tage that it contains no alcohol, and may be dispensed in capsules 
which make it tasteless, without materially retarding its solution 
and absorption. 

Capsules (Capsula, ce, f.). 

Capsules are made of gelatine and come into the trade filled and 
empty. The latter are used in extemporaneous prescribing as is 
explained farther on ; the filled capsules, which usually contain 
liquid substances like copaiba, castor oil, etc., are often made 
flexible. Filled capsules are prescribed by quoting the desired 
formula of the manufacturer and the number of capsules wanted. 

Cerates (Ceratum, i, n.). 

The term is derived from ceratus, a, urn, an adjective signifying 
waxed; the adjective is derived from cera, ce, f., wax. 

Cerates are made by melting varying proportions of white wax 
with lard or mixtures of lard, petrolatum, paraffin, rosin, turpen- 
tine, suet or other fats, and stirring constantly until cold. ' ' Simple 
cerate," or "wax cerate," is used as a dressing, or as a vehicle for 
more active substances. All cerates contain beeswax. 

Formerly the title Acerides was used to designate a class of plas- 
ters, which, as the name implies, were made without wax. 

Collodions {Collodium, i, n.). 

The word collodion is derived from collodes, is, glue-like ; in turn, 
from colla, ce, f., glue. 

Collodion is made by dissolving gun-cotton in a mixture of 
alcohol and stronger ether. Upon evaporation, a tough colloid 
mass is left ; or, if the collodion is painted on the skin, a thin film 
remains, which protects and supports the parts. 

Collodion may be rendered flexible by the addition of a small 
proportion of castor oil, or, as in the official preparation, castor oil 
and Canada turpentine, or it may be medicated as in cantharidal 
and styptic collodions. 



18 THE PRESCRIPTION 

Confections (Confection, i, n. or confectio, onis, f.). 

According to Webster, "a preparation of fruits, roots, and the 
like with sugar; a sweetmeat; a comfit." 

Several Latin words are used to designate this class of pharma- 
ceutical preparations. Confectio, onis, f., is like the English word. 
Confectum, i, n. (that which is prepared ; from conficio, feci, fectum 
— to bring together; to work up together), is generally given as the 
origin from which the English word is derived. The word means 
a product of the confectioner's art, and although it is the official 
title, it is not exactly expressive of the nature of the preparations. 
Confectio amygdalarum, for instance, means candied almonds. 

The words conditio, onis, f., or condition, i, n. have a similar 
meaning. Conditio cince means candied wormseed. As used in the 
Pharmacopoeia the word confection means a medicinal powder, 
mixed with sugar and saccharine fluids to make a pulp, or paste, 
resembling stiff apple-butter in consistence. 

In some of the works on pharmacy the confections are divided 
into two classes, the conserves (conserva, ce, f.,), and the electuaries 
(electuarium, i, n.). The conserves are sometimes described to be 
preparations of moist drugs with dry saccharine substances, while 
the electuaries are dry powdered drugs mixed with moist saccharine 
substances ; but this distinction is not always made, nor is it always 
practicable. 

A thin, viscid electuary was formerly called an ecligmatium, i, n., 
or ecclegma, eclegma, or ecleigma, at is, n. (from a Greek word 
meaning to lick up). Lolwcli, loch, or looch, n., indeclinable, or 
linctus, us, m. (from lingo, nxi nctum to lick up), were other terms 
for the same kind of preparation. On account of their viscidity 
these preparations had to be licked from the spoon with which they 
were administered, whence the names. Extract of malt, for instance, 
is a preparation of this kind, although the name was more frequently 
used for preparations consisting of an impalpable powder mixed 
with honey or syrup, or with a thick mucilage of acacia, quince 
seed, salep, starch, iceland moss, or carragheen. 

Decoctions (Decoctum, i, n. or decoctio, onis, f.). 

From decoquo, oxi, coctum, to boil down. The word decoctio, onis 
1, is often used as the Latin title for preparations of this kind. 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 19 

A decoction is prepared by boiling a drug for some time in water 
and then straining. The strained liquid is called cola, ce, f., 
colatura, ce, f., colatum, i, n. or colamientum, i, n., in Latin, the 
preference usually being to the word colatura. All of these 
words are derived from the verb colo, 1, to strain ; to clarify. 

Some pharmacopoeias direct that decoctions or infusions be 
made of certain strengths when no directions in regard to the 
strength are given in the physicians' prescriptions, but it is better 
practice for the physician always to specify the strength, especially 
when ordering energetic or powerful drugs ; and the pharmacist 
will appreciate it as a mark of carefulness on the part of the 
physician, when the latter applies this caution to all the decoctions 
and infusions which he prescribes. 

The physician would probably find a mixture of fluid extracts 
with water to be preferable to a decoction of the same drug in 
most cases, but the pharmacist would not be justified in substituting 
such a mixture when the physician presci*ibes a decoction. 

Elixirs (Elixir, iris, n.). 

"Any cordial or substance which invigorates." — (Webster.) 
Elixir, iris, n., or elixirium, ii, n., are two forms of this title, either 
of which may be used, although most authorities give the pre- 
ference to the first. These words are said to be derived from the 
verb elicio, cut, citum, which means to coax forth, or to elicit. Dr. 
Charles Rice, formerly chairman of the Committee of Revision and 
Publication of the Pharmacopoeia of the United States, who was an 
excellent scholar of Oriental languages, gave the following explana- 
tion of the word "elixir," which is published in Professor Lloyd's 
work on Elixirs : ' ' The word is proximately derived from the Arabic 
(al-iksir), being composed of the article al or el and iksir. * * * 
In alchemy it was used to denote the magical transformation 
powder so much sought after, a pinch of which would convert a 
whole mass of base metal into gold. * * * In later technical 
language 'elixir' was used to denote various preparations more or 
less alchemistic, * * * and it designated any compound prepa- 
ration of supposed 'sublime' properties, reputed to prolong life 
and to ward off disease. ' ' 

Elixirs are palatable fluid preparations containing sugar, wine or 
alcohol, and aromatics, by which the taste of nauseous medicines 



20 THE PRESCRIPTION 

is rendered agreeable, or at least less disagreeable, or in which such 
medicines are dissolved. 

Elixirs, if well made, are elegant and valuable preparations, 
which deserve extensive application in the treatment of disease. 

Emulsions (Emulsum, i, n. or Emulsio, onis, f.). 

Emulsions are liquid preparations, in which oils, oleo-resins, bal- 
sams, resins, or similar substances which are insoluble in water, 
are suspended in water by the aid of some viscid or mucilaginous 
excipient, sometimes called the emulgent (emulgens, entis, n., the 
emulsifying agent.) 

By some English writers the term emulsion is used to designate 
the same class of preparations which the United States Pharma- 
copoeia calls mixtures (mistura, ce, f.) so that a dry powder sus- 
pended in mucilage is classed in this category. 

As the term comes from the verb emulgeo, mulsi, mulsum, to 
milk, the word should be limited to the preparations having an 
appearance of milk, and we so use it. 

Some authors make a distinction between ' different kinds of 
emulsions, dividing them into true {emulsum verum) and false 
{emulsum spurium) emulsions. The true emulsions result from 
the trituration of a drug containing both the oil and the emulgent, 
with water, as when asafoetida is rubbed up with water to make the 
official emulsio asafoetidce. The false emulsions are made by 
triturating the substances to be emulsified with gum, mucilage, or 
yolk of egg or other emulgent, as when we emulsify castor oil with 
acacia. The older writers gave a special name to the false emulsion, 
calling it colostrum {colostrum, i, n., or colostra, ce, f.) , the first 
milk of a newly delivered woman. 

Extracts {Extractum, i,n.) . 

From extraho, xi, ctum, to extract; to draw out. Exjtractus, lis, 
m., is another, although but rarely used form of title for this class 
of preparations. 

Extracts are often spoken of as "solid extracts." Formerly, be- 
fore the introduction of fluid extracts, they were considered to be 
the best form for the administration of various medicines, and they 
are, in fact, excellent preparations, even now, especially if it is 
desirable to administer the medicines in pill form. 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 21 

Extracts are generally of semi-solid consistence, but a few are 
dry and may be powdered. They are prepared by exhausting the 
drug with a proper menstruum, usually by percolation, and then 
evaporating to a pilular consistence by means of a water bath. 

The menstruum used for exhausting the crude drug is sometimes 
expressed in the title of the prescription, this being designated as 
"extractum alcoliolicum" or " extractum aquosum," as the case 
may be. 

Many of the extracts when evaporated to the pilular consistence 
are mixed with a small proportion of glycerin to prevent the extract 
from becoming hard and dry. 

Fluid Extracts {Extractum fluidum or Fluidextractum) . 

This class of preparations is directed to be made by percolation 
in the proportion of 1 gram of drug with enough of the proper men- 
struum to make 1 cubic centimeter of the finished fluid extract. 

If properly made by repercolation from the best quality of drugs, 
these preparations are by far the best, most permanent, and most 
reliable that can be made to represent the vegetable drugs. 

They are promptly active and easily absorbed ; they represent 
the crude drugs more fairly than many of the isolated active prin- 
ciples, alkaloids, etc., and they deserve to be even more generally 
employed than now. They render tinctures, wines, infusions, 
decoctions, and a number of other preparations superfluous, and 
are sure to remain popular. 

Most vegetable drugs may be made into fluid extracts by using 
the official process, choosing a proper menstruum, according to the 
nature of the drug. Aloes, catechu and similar drugs are excep- 
tions, as one gram of drug can not be dissolved to make one cubic 
centimeter of liquid. 

Glycerites {Glyceritum, i, n.). 

These preparations are mixtures of various substances or medi- 
cines with glycerin; they have also been designated as glycerolates 
{glycerolatum, i, n.), glyerols or glyceroles {glyceroleum, i, n.), 
glycerins {glycerinum, i, n.), or glycerates {glyceratum, i, n.). 

In appearance and physical properties, as well as to some extent 
in their therapeutical uses, they resemble the medicated syrups, but 
as glycerin, which forms the bulk of these preparations, is anti- 



22 



THE PRESCRIPTION 



septic, these preparations will keep in good condition for an indefi- 
nite length of time, and the antiseptic effects of glycerin on the 
system may also prove of therepentical value. 

Honeys (Mel, mellis, n.). 

Honey, medicated or simple, is occasionally used in pharmacy, or 
in prescriptions, generally as an excipient. 

Oxymel, mellis, n., oxymeli, itis, n. (oxy — , a prefix meaning- 
sharp or acid), and acetomel, mellis, n., are terms for a class of 
preparations consisting of honey with vinegars. Hydromel, mellis, 
n., is a mixture of honey with water, which, when fermented, was 
formerly called "mead." 

Infusions (Infusum, i, n. or Infusio, onis f.) 

The term is derived from the verb infundo, fudi, fusum, to drench 
With hot water. The noun infusio, onis, f., is also occasionally used 
in prescriptions instead of the more common neuter noun. For- 
merly all infusions were made by placing the properly comminuted 
drug in an appropriate vessel, and pouring boiling water over it, 
covering it and letting stand until cool and then straining. (See 
Decoctions.) Infusions may also be made with cold water (infuswm 
frigide paratum), and they may be made by percolation. 

Formerly a preparation called infuso-decoctum, i, n., was a prepa- 
ration made by first boiling one or more drugs for awhile, and, 
when the boiling was completed, adding another ingredient, which 
was only to be infused. 

As both decoctions and infusions have now become almost obso- 
lete and deservedly so, such refinements of nomenclature are no 
longer in vogue. Undoubtedly the infusions, as a class, are inferior 
and unreliable preparations, which should be discarded entirely, 
and mixtures of fluid extracts and water should be prescribed 
instead. When they are prescribed, however, it would be poor 
pharmacy to dispense diluted fluid extracts in their stead. 

The remarks made in regard to Decoctions, about specifying the 
strength in the prescriptions, applies equally forcibly here. 

Juices (Succus, i, m.) 

This class of preparations is made by forcibly expressing the 
juice of the fresh drugs, as of belladonna leaves, and then mixing 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 23 

with a certain proportion of alcohol to preserve them. They are 
an inferior class of pharmaceutical preparations. The expressed 
juice of a fresh drug was formerly called enchylisma, atis, n. (from 
a Greek word meaning juice), and when such a juice was inspissated 
or evaporated to syrupy consistence, it was called "succus in- 
spissatus, " or "roob, " as roob juniperi. The word roob is from 
the Arabic, and is either roob, is, n., or roob, n., indeclinable. 

Liniments ( Liniment um, i, n.). 

A liquid preparation intended for inunction, and consisting 
wholly, or in part, of oils, volatile oils, or camphor. 

The practice of massage for the cure of rheumatic and other 
affections is often much facilitated by the use of a liniment, and an 
attendant may be induced to rub and knead a joint for half an hour 
with a liniment, when he would not do so with his hands or gloves 
alone. 

A remedy intended for inunction by massage is sometimes known 
as confricamentum, i, n., from confrico, fricui, friction, to rub 
against each other. 

Liniments are a very popular class of remedies for painful affec- 
tions, and prove of benefit partly on account of their intrinsic 
anodyne virtues, partly owing to the accompanying employment of 
friction. 

There is also a class of liniments known as opodeldocs (opodeldoc 
n., indeclinable) or soap liniments (saponamentum, i, n..), which 
consist of soap dissolved in alcohol and water, in such proportions 
as to gelatinize. With this simple saponament may be incorporated 
various other substances, such as camphor, opium, etc. 

Liquid Extracts (Extraction liquidiim). 

A class of preparations made like fluid extracts, but other 
strength. Such are the 50 per cent solutions of aloes, catechu, etc., 
commonly sold in the trade under the name of "fluid extracts" of 
the corresponding drugs. It is, of course, impossible to make a 
true fluid extract of these substances, as it is impossible to have the 
soluble part of 1 gram of such drugs contained in 1 cubic centi- 
meter of the finished fluid. 



24 THE PRESCRIPTION 

Masses (Massa, ce, f.). 

Masses are of a doughy or pilular consistence, intended for the 
making of pills. They are kept on hand in mass and divided into 
pills as occasion requires. 

Mixtures (Mistura, cb, 1). 

This is a rather nondescript class of pharmaceutical prepara- 
tions, including a number which cannot be well placed elsewhere. 

The term "mixture" should be restricted to those preparations 
in which a solid substance is suspended in a fluid by means of 
some viscid excipient, such as syrup or mucilage. 

Mucilages (Mucilago, inis, f. ; also called Mucago, or 
Muccago, inis, f.). 

This is a class of preparations consisting of a gum or mucilagi- 
nous substance dissolved in water. They are used as demulcents, as 
vehicles for other medicines, or as excipients. 

Ointments ( Unguentum, i, n. ) . 

TJnguentum, i, n., unguen, inis, n., and xmguedo, inis, f., are terms 
derived from ungo, or unguo, unxi, unctum, to anoint, and mean 
a salve, or fatty substance, which melts by friction at the tempera- 
ture of the body, and which is intended for inunction. Remedies 
used in ointments are usually intended for absorption, although 
occasionally for local or external effects. 

Enchrisma, atis, n., or chrisma, atis, n., also means a salve, but 
the term more properly means a remedy to be applied with a brush, 
and a similar term, encliristum, i, n., means either a salve or lini- 
ment, or a remedy for inunction. 

Ointments are usually dispensed in small jars, or gallipots, 
which are designated by various terms in Latin, of which olla, ce, f ., 
pot, was most commonly used. Ollula, ce, f., ollicula, ce, f. (di- . 
minutive of olla) , myrotlieca, cb, f., and myrotliecium, ii, n., all mean 
gallipot, or ointment jar. Nartliex, ecis, f., nartlieca, nartliecia, 
or narthecya, ce, f., and nartliecium, ii, n., are terms originally 
meaning a box turned or made out of narthex wood to contain 
medicine, and these terms afterwards were used to designate oint- 
ment jars, although they are equally applicable to a medicine chest. 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 25 

Alabastrum, i, n., was an ointment jar cut from alabaster in the 
form of a rose bud, and was used for perfumed unguents, or 
pomades. Pomata, ce, f., and pomatum, i, n., is a perfumed oint- 
ment, a pomade, used for cosmetic purposes. 

Oleates (Oleatum, i, n.). 

Oleates are combinations of various bases with oleic acid, ordina- 
rily dissolved in an excess of oleic acid; or, by double decomposi- 
tion, the oleates are produced without an excess of oleic acid, the 
bulk of the preparation then being made up of simple cerate, 
petrolatum, or other fat. The oleates are said to be absorbed more 
readily by the skin than are ointments. 

Oleoresins (Oleoresina, m, f.). 

There are quite a number of natural oleoresins which are used 
in medicines, such as copaiba and others. There is, also, a class of 
pharmaceutical preparations of this name, which includes oleo- 
resins (a natural combination of a volatile oil with a resin), which 
are extracted from crude vegetable drugs Avith ether, which latter 
is afterwards distilled off or allowed to evaporate. 

Papers (Charta, ce, f.). 

Chart a, ce, f., is a Latin word which has several meanings, of 
which the most common is paper; but it also means that which is 
written on paper, an epistle, a deed, a charter (magna charta, for 
instance) ; or a thin plate, as charta plumbea, sheet-lead. Adjec- 
tives added to the word charta, specify various peculiarities, as 
charta bibula, blotting paper ; charta, densata, pasteboard ; charta 
exploratoria, reagent paper, or litmus paper ; charta cerata, waxed 
paper, etc. 

It would, therefore, seem to have been advisable to have called 
this class of preparations chartce medicatce, or medicated papers. 

Papers are prepared either by saturating bibulous paper with 
some solution and then drying, or by coating one surface with a 
mixture of medicinal substances. Nitrate of potassium paper is an 
example of the first, and mustard paper of the second kind. 

Pills (Pilida, ce, f.) . 

The word pilula is a diminutive of pila, ce, f., which means a 
mortar, a pile (as pila electrica, a galvanic pile), a ball, or a 



26 THE PRESCRIPTION 

sphere. The term pilula, however, only means a little sphere, or, 
a pill. 

Many remedies can appropriately be dispensed in pill-form, and 
this class of preparations is quite popular. Nevertheless, this 
method of administering medicines has serious drawbacks, owing 
to the frequent insolubility of the pill and the consequent want 
of absorption. It is true, that this is not always due to the pill 
itself, but to the condition of the patient, but the result is the 
same ; often pills will fail to act when the corresponding remedies 
in a fluid state, as in fluid extract, would act promptly. The ap- 
plicability of pills is, therefore, limited, and careful physicians 
will rather prescribe remedies in a form more easily and surely 
absorbed. 

Pills are used plain or uncoated, sugar-coated, or gelatin-coated. 
Of these three forms, the uncoated pill, probably, is most readily 
absorbed, but the coating of the gelatin-coated pill is also so easily 
dissolved that there is not much therapeutical disadvantage in 
giving the gelatin-coated rather than the uncoated pills, while 
there are a number of advantages which far outweigh the very 
slight retardation of solution, of which the permanence and taste- 
lessness are two. The sugar-coated pill is least soluble of the 
kinds mentioned. 

Some few pills containing deliquescent salts, as iodide of iron, 
etc., are coated by rolling on a plate in a solution of balsam of 
tolu in ether, the ether leaving a resinous coating upon evapora- 
tion. These pills are possibly less readily absorbed than the sugar- 
coated pills, but as the latter are often coated in a similar way with 
a solution of shellac in alcohol before being coated with sugar, 
so as to prevent the sugar from being discolored by the pill mass 
such sugar-coated pills are less soluble even than the tolu-coated. 

The dragee (a French word, dragee; Latin, tragea, ce, f., dragetcu, 
ce, f., or tracliena, atis, n.), means a sugar-coated pill. The Latin 
terms also mean a pastille or a coarse powder, or occasionally, also, 
a sugar tablet. 

The granule (granellum, i, n., or granulum, i, n.', diminutives of 
granum, i, n., a grain or kernel) is a very small pill for the ad- 
ministration of very active remedies, such as alkaloids. This is a 
favorite preparation with homoeopaths. 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 27 

The bolus {bolus, i, m., a choice bit, nice morsel, a mass or 
lump) is a very large pill, or any rounded mass larger than 
a pill, but intended to be swallowed whole. Its use is almost 
entirely restricted to veterinary practice now. The same word in 
the same form is also feminine, bolus, i, f., which means an argil- 
laceous earth, or bole, as bolus alba, and bolus rubra, white and 
red bole. 

Plasters {Emplastrum, i, n.). 

The word emplastrum, plaster, means an adhesive, fatty, or resin- 
ous compound, which is sold either spread on muslin, leather, or 
other textile fabric (spread plaster, sometimes called sparadrapus, 
i, m., sparadrapa, ce, f., or sparadrapum, i, n., all three forms being 
used), or in rolls (formerly called magdaleon, onis, f., thus magda- 
leon emplastri diachyli, roll of lead plaster). 

So-called "isinglass plaster" {emplastrum icMJiyocollce) consists 
of a solution of isinglass spread and dried on thin silk or taffeta ; 
it is also called sericum adlucsivum {sericum, i, n., silk). 

Fatty plasters are adhesive at the temperature of the body, but 
solid at ordinary temperatures. Surgeons' adhesive plaster, em- 
plastrum adhcesivum, is lead plaster spread on muslin. 

Formerly a number of terms were in use, such as emplastrum ad 
clavos, corn-plaster; emplastrum ad fracturas, plaster for dressing 
of fractures; emplastrum conglutinans, sticking plaster; emplas- 
trum defensivum, protective plaster; emplastrum stypticum, styp- 
tic plaster, etc. 

Curiously enough the term emplastrum diachylon, which now 
means lead plaster, originally meant any plaster made from the 
juice of plants, and was applied to lead plaster because this was 
formerly made with the juice or mucilage of marshmallow. 

Powders (Pulvis, eris, m. or f.). 

While pulvis can be used either as a masculine or feminine 
word, it is customary to use it. only in the masculine gender, so 
that adjectives are also written in the masculine form to agree with 
it, and we write Pidvis aromaticus, and not aromatica\. 

Powders in divided doses as generally prescribed, were for- 
merly called " pulviscidi" (plural of ptdvisculus, i, m., or pulviuscu- 
lus, i, m., the diminutive of pulvis), but are now called "pulveres." 



28 THE PRESCRIPTION 

Resins (Resina, ce, f.). 

As in the case of oleo resins, there are quite a number of natural 
resins in use, and also several preparations of resins made by the 
pharmacist. The latter are made by precipitating from concen- 
trated alcoholic tinctures, by pouring into Avater. The title 
"resin" applies to both kinds of resins. 

Solutions (Liquor, oris, m.). 

The official Latin title, liquor, means a liquid, and, therefore, if 
literally translated, is a title having little or no meaning. The- 
English name, solution, is not a translation of this Latin word, 
but of another word, solutio, onis, f., which means a liquid hold- 
ing something in solution. This Latin word, solutio, therefore, is 
a much more appropriate and expressive title, and should be pre- 
ferred to the meaningless title "liquor;" or, the English word 
should have been a different one, so that the name solutio, both 
Latin and English, might have been altogether used to designate a 
class of extemporaneous preparations commonly designated as 
solutions, which are essentially different from the pharmacopoeia! 
solutions. 

Most of the solutions are solutions of chemicals or alkaloids in 
water, but in some the solvent is something else; diluted alcohol 
in solution of citrate of iron and quinine, chloroform in solution 
of gutta-percha, etc. 

"Species" (Species, ierum, f. pi.). 

The plural of the word species, ei, f., is used in pharmacy to 
designate a mixture of coarse vegetable powders, used for teas, or 
to macerate in liquors to make "bitters," as in the case of the 
well-known species ad longam vitam, or the equally well-known 
species pectorales or "pectoral teas." 

Species are commonly used to make teas, but are more frequently 
called for by the laity than prescribed by physicians. Mixed with 
hot water, some species are used to make poultices, also called 
cataplasms (cataplasma, atis, n., or also formerly cliliasma, atis, 
n.). A dry poultice, consisting of a species sewed in a small bag 
and applied warm, as the popular sack of bran, cornmeal or 
chamomile for toothache, was called saccellatio, onis, f . Formerly, 
and perhaps now, small bags with camphor were worn over the 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 29 

■chest, suspended by a ribbon about the neck, to keep off cholera 
or other infectious diseases; more recently "liver pads," and in- 
numerable other patent "pads" were also much used; such a sac, 
with its contents, was called saccellus, i, m., or when it was larger 
and used as a pillow it was called caiaclitum, i, n., as cataclitum 
Jiumuli, hop pillow. Some of the modern pillows advertised as 
catarrh remedies, might be also classed here. 

When these sacs, with their contents, were used as amulets for 
superstitious reasons, as when the negroes of today buy and 
carry about themselves ' ' female ' ' loadstones to attract the females, 
while the negresses carry "male" loadstones to attract the males, 
then they were called bambaceutria, orum, n., meaning fetishes, 
charms, spells, or witch-remedies. The "love-powders" often 
called for even in this enlightened age, would also be bambaceutria. 
The same word also means poison, and the art of mixing these 
remedies was called bambacia, ce, f. (the mixing of poisons — Grift- 
mischerei, G.). To counteract these spells, other remedies were 
worn about the body, generally in small sacs suspended about the 
neck; such a protective remedy against witchcraft was called 
bascanium, ii, n. Articles used as charms for good are now called 
mascots, and the charms for evil are called hoodoos. 

These various remedies constituted a considerable part of the 
stock of the apothecary in the days of Shakespeare, if we may judge 
from the description in Borneo and Juliet, but it is not unusual 
that demands for them are made on the druggist of today. It is 
surprising to what extent similar remedies are worn even at the 
present time. The potato or buckeye worn in the pocket to ward 
off Bright 's disease or rheumatism; or the loadstones; or many of 
the galvanic belts, scrotal supporters, soles, etc., the clover leaf for 
good-luck; or amulets of various kinds, coral necklaces hung 
around children's necks to prevent diphtheria, all belong to the 
same category of bambaceutria. 

When species are ordered for the purpose of making an infu- 
sion from them, into which flannels or cloths are to be dipped while 
it is still hot, and then applied to the body, or parts of the body, 
such a remedy is called a fomentation, or, in Latin, fotus, us, m., 
fomentatio, onis, f., or fomentum, i, n. A flannel wrung out of 
hot chamomile tea, over which turpentine is sprinkled, applied 



30 



THE PRESCRIPTION 



over the bladder in suppression of urine, would be a remedy of 
this kind. 

Spirits (Spiritus, us, m.). 

Spirits are solutions of volatile substances in alcohol, obtained 
either by distillation or by solution; volatile oils, or other volatile 
substances or gases, such as camphor or ammonia, are thus dis- 
solved. 

Suppositories (Suppositorium, ii, n.). 

Suppositories are medicines mixed with cacao butter and formed 
into small cones, to be used for insertion into the rectum or vagina. 
When for the first, they are also called rectal suppositories, and for 
the second, vaginal suppositories. Sometimes they are made with 
gelatin and glycerin. 

A vaginal suppository is also sometimes called pessum, i, n., 
or pessarium, ii, n., a vaginal suppository, a pessary. 

When intended for insertion into the urethra, uterus, nasal pas- 
sages, or eustachian tube, they are called bougies (bougia, ce, f.), 
from a French word meaning wax-candles. . 

Unless otherwise specified in the physician's prescription, sup- 
positories are made to weigh about 35 grains or 1 gram. 

Syrups (Syrupus, i, m.). 

These are solutions of various kinds, containing large quantities 
of sugar (60 to 65 per cent). 

Some syrups are medicated and present the remedies in a palata- 
ble form ; others are only flavored, and are used as excipients in 
extemporaneous prescriptions. 

Syrups made by dissolving sugar in vegetable infusions are lia- 
ble to ferment, and should therefore be made in limited quantities 
and kept in a cool place. 

Tinctures (T'inctura, ce, I.). 

The word is derived from the verb tingo (or tinguo) , nxi, nctum, 
to color, and literally means either the process of coloring, or a 
colored extract. 

In pharmacy the word means a solution of the medicinally active 
constituents of drugs, or a solution of a chemical or chemicals, in 
an alcoholic menstruum. The solutions of chemicals, as of iodine 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 31 

in alcohol, should be called solutions, rather than tinctures, limit- 
ing the latter term to weak alcoholic preparations from organic- 
drugs. 

According to the menstruum which is used, different names have 
been given to the preparations. Thus, a tincture made with 
alcohol alone, is sometimes called alcolwlatura, ce, f., when it is an 
extract from organic substances, while a solution of a chemical in 
alcohol was called alcoJwlativum, i, n. The first of these terms is 
used in the French Codex, with a slightly modified meaning. 
(See Tinctures of Fresh Herbs.) 

A tincture containing vinegar or acids was sometimes called 
aceiolatura, ce, f., and a tincture containing ether was designated 
as cetlierolaturum, i, n., or etheroles as in the French Codex. 

Tinctures of Fresh Herbs (Tincturce Herbarum Recentium) . 

This formula gives general directions for making these : 

Take of 

The fresh herb, bruised or crushed 50 parts. 

Alcohol 100 parts. 

Macerate the herb with the alcohol for fourteen days ; then 
express the liquid and filter. 

In the French Codex these tinctures are designated as alcoola- 
tures (alcolwlatura, ce, f.). 

Triturations (Trituratio, onis, f., or tritura, ce, f.). 

The term is derived from the verb tero, trivi, tritum, to rub fine. 
The following gives a general formula : 

Take of 

The substance 10 parts. 

Sugar of milk, in moderately fine powder. 90 parts. 



To make 100 parts. 

These substances are to be thoroughly mixed. 

Troches (Trocliiscm, i, m.). 

The term trocliiscus, meaning troche or lozenge, is applied to 
a small flattened cake, made from sugar and gum or other adhe- 
sive substance, with which medicinal ingredients have been incor- 



32 THE PRESCRIPTION 

porated. These are worked into a mass and rolled out flat, and 
from this the troches are punched with dies of oval, round, octag- 
onal or other forms; or troches may be made by compression. 
Troches are used mainly for local effects on the mucous membranes 
of the mouth and pharynx, by allowing them to dissolve slowly in 
the mouth. 

The word tabula, 02, f., or the diminutive tabella, ce, f., a small 
plate, a tablet, is sometimes used to designate the same kind of 
preparation. 

Another term, pastilla, ce, f., a pastil (diminutive of pasta, ai, f., 
dough or paste), is a term applied to a class of preparations 
mainly used for fumigation. The fumigating pastilles (pastillce 
fumales), are small conical bodies, which, when ignited, are slowly 
consumed, emitting perfumed odors as they burn. They may 
also be used as moxas {moxa; ce, f.), by burning on the skin for 
counter-irritation. 

The word rotula, ce, f. (diminutive of rota, ce, f., a wheel), desig- 
nates a small disc of sugar which is impregnated with alcoholic 
solutions of ethereal oils, as in the well-known "peppermint 
drops." Rotulce sacchari are the little sugar tablets before the 
flavoring spirit has been added. 

The disc (discus, i, m., from a Greek word meaning a plate, a 
disc) is a small circular troche of gelatin, with which medicinal 
agents are incorporated. They are made to dissolve in water for 
subcutaneous injection, or occasionally for use by oculists to apply 
atropine or other remedies to the eye. 

Vinegars (Acetum, i, n.). 

Vinegars are made by extracting the active constituents of drugs 
with wine vinegar, or with diluted acetic acid. They are not a 
very elegant class of preparations, and, with the exception of vine- 
gar of squill, are not very often used. 

The menstruum or fluid used to make vinegars was formerly 
called acetolativum, i, n., an acidulated fluid. An infusion made 
with such a menstruum, instead of water, was an acetolatum, i, n. ; 
or a tincture containing vinegar was an acetolatura, ce, i.; a mix- 
ture of a medicated vinegar with honey was called oxymel or ace- 
tomel (see Honeys), and foods made with vinegar, such as salads 
or pickles, were acetaria, orum, n. ; acetositas, atis, f ., the sour, 



GENERAL CONSIDERATION- 33 

that which is sour, was a term occasionally employed, as. for in- 
stance, acetositas citri, lemon juice, literally, the sour of lemons. 

Waters {Aqua, a, f.). 

This class of preparations is often spoken of in the dispensa- 
tories as "• dedicated Waters" (Aqiue medicates), although that is 
not the pharmacopceial title. Waters which have been made aro- 
matic with volatile oils, are also called " Aromatic Waters" (Aqua 
aromaiica) . They are used as diluents in extemporaneous pre- 
scriptions. 

The plural of aqua, or aqua, arum, f.. formerly meant mineral 
waters, or watering-places. In this sense. Saratoga or Hot 
Springs were "Aqua?." We now speak of mineral waters as aqua, 
miner ales, and of waters charged with carbonic acid as aqua 
aerata. Artificial mineral aerated waters are much used, and are 
dispensed in syphons. In the prescriptions they are commonly 
designated by their vernacular names, and not by Latin titles. 
Well-made artificial mineral waters are to be preferred to the 
natural waters, except when the latter are drunk fresh at the 
springs. 

Wines (Vinum, i, n.). 

Natural wines are frequently prescribed by physicians. There 
is, however, also a class of pharmaceutical preparations, consist- 
ing of tinctures, in which wine is used as a menstruum, and these 
preparations are called "medicated wines.'* or simply "wines." 
Medicated wines have about the same pharmaceutical and thera- 
peutical value as the corresponding tinctures. 

There are a number of valuable "elegant" pharmaceutical prepa- 
rations, such as "Beef. Wine and Iron." "Beef. Wine and Iron 
with Cinchona." etc.. which combine tonic and stimulant prop- 
erties with an exceedingly pleasant taste, and which are therefore 
deservedly popular. 

Wines of this latter kind are preparations of essentially the 
same class as elixirs. 

Many Other Preparations. 

such as baths, enemas, gargles, potions, injections, etc.. are some- 
times officinal, but are more usually prescribed extemporaneously. 



34 THE PRESCRIPTION 

and will be considered when we reach the subject of extemporane- 
ous prescriptions. 

Patent and Proprietary Preparations. 

By these titles preparations are designated which are made ac- 
cording to formulas originated by individuals or firms who hold a 
copyright on the name or a patent on the composition of the rem- 
edy, which latter they keep secret. Some of these preparations 
are put on the market by advertising them directly to the con- 
suming public through the daily papers or by the distribution 
of almanacs, and these medicines are called "patent medicines." 
The manufacture and sale of patent medicines has assumed immense 
proportions, mainly on account of the moral support which it 
has received from the members of the pharmaceutical profession, 
by allowing their names and addresses to be printed on the cov- 
ers of the almanacs and circulars, and then distributing them to 
their customers. This is generally looked upon by the public as 
an indorsement of the statements of the almanac by the drug- 
gist, and it is probable that without such presumed indorsement 
many now popular remedies would not have achieved much suc- 
cess. Many patent medicines, of course, are worthless, but some 
possess considerable merit, and serve a valuable purpose in sparsely 
settled districts where it is impossible to obtain proper medical at- 
tendance. 

Another class of preparations has become popular with many 
druggists as a substitute for patent medicines. They differ from 
patent medicines only in having either a real or pretended state- 
ment of the composition of the contents printed on the label, and 
the name of the retail druggist on the wrapper instead of on the 
cover of the almanac. By closely imitating the style of putting 
up, and even the names of well-known and well-advertised pat- 
ent medicines, these so-called "non-secret" remedies have come 
into extensive use and offer better profits than the correspond- 
ing patent medicines. 

It is not our object to discuss the ethical questions which are 
involved in the sale of either the "patent" or "non-secret" medi- 
cines, but we leave this for each one to settle in his own mind. 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 35 

A number of very valuable remedies have recently been intro- 
duced into general use, and are extensively prescribed by physi- 
cians, which are only made by one manufacturer, because he holds 
a patent on the process of production. It seems but right that 
when anyone has devoted much time, study, and money to the dis- 
covery and elaboration of a valuable process of making a meri- 
torious article, that he should be protected by letters patent in the 
utilization of his process. In this case no one is prevented from 
making the same remedy by another, essentially different process, 
if he can. Such a remedy, though only obtainable from the 
patentee of the process, is not in any sense a patent medicine, and 
should not be so considered. 

The copyrighting of the name of a preparation does not patent 
the process nor the combination of remedies, but leaves it free to 
everyone to make a similar preparation, but prevents him from 
using a similar name. As the demand for many of these prepara- 
tions is exclusively due to advertising, and as they have a sale only 
under certain names, it is clear that this secures the benefits of 
advertising to the one who pays for it. Many of these prepara- 
tions are intended to be prescribed by physicians, and are not 
advertised to the general public. It is a legitimate business enter- 
prise to make such preparations, for no one is compelled to use 
them unless he chooses to do so, and if a physician desires to pre- 
scribe them, he can well enough afford to let the profits go to the 
one who originated the article ; nor would it be honest for the dis- 
pensing pharmacist to put up something else without the knowl- 
edge or consent of the prescriber. 

There is still another class of preparations, sometimes called 
proprietary, the formulas for which are common property, such 
as various elegant pharmaceutical preparations, elixirs, wines, 
syrups, etc., but different firms either claim to possess, or really 
do possess, better facilities or greater knowledge and skill in mak- 
ing them, so that the products, though similar in name, are really 
different in regard to medicinal worth. This applies, also, to 
regular pharmacopoeial preparations, such as fluid extracts and 
chemicals, and it is in regard to these preparations that the pro- 
priety or impropriety of specifying in prescriptions is most hotly 
contested. 



36 the prescription 

"Specifying" in Prescriptions. 

On this subject the author of these pages submitted a paper to 
the American Pharmaceutical Association at its meeting, in Mil- 
waukee, Wis., August, 1884, which was printed in its proceed- 
ings, and from which we reprint the following: 

The question, to what extent a physician is justified in specify- 
ing certain preparations in his prescriptions, is one to which widely 
different answers are apt to be given, according to the pecuniary 
and business interests involved. Many pharmacists take the ground 
that it is unprofessional for the physician ever to specify a certain 
manufacturer's pills, fluid extracts, elixirs, etc., while others freely 
acknowledge his right to do so. 

This question is one which can best be answered by looking at 
it from the physician's standpoint, for if it is to his own and his 
patient's interest that he should specify, then it is proper for 
him to do so. The physician's duty to his patient is not com- 
prised merely in the visit, the diagnosis, and the written prescrip- 
tion, but it includes also the responsibility for the proper execu- 
tion of his orders. The physician owes it to his patient to see that 
he is placed under the best possible conditions for an early restora- 
tion to health, to provide proper hygienic surroundings, to regu- 
late his baths, his diet, and nursing, and last, not least, to see that 
the proper medicines are administered at the necessary time. 

In other words, the physician must regulate and control every 
influence that may restore his patient to health, and the neglect- 
ing or slighting of any of these things is a sin of omission towards 
his patient, who looks to him for his chance of recovery. Not only 
is it necessary to do all this for the patient's sake, but it is for the 
physician's own good that he should attend to all these matters. 
Success in any pursuit in life depends upon an attention to details, 
and the physician who pays attention to all the details, that may 
or may not assist in rescuing his patient from threatened death, 
is more successful than he who contents himself with merely writ- 
ing a prescription and giving a few general directions, which, from 
the careless manner in which they are frequently given, do not 
impress themselves upon the attendant's mind as important, and 
are neglected to the imminent peril of the patient. 

One of the details often overlooked by the physicians, to their 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 37 

own and their patient's lasting injury, is the looking after the 
character of the medicines dispensed on their prescriptions. 

Many pharmacists speak and write as if they think that it must 
be taken for granted that every pharmacist is honest, and in all 
regards — ability, education, and business tact — equal to every other 
pharmacist. But is there anything in the profession of pharmacy 
that compels us to believe this? Do the gentlemen claiming this 
believe it themselves? 

Can they not always point out to the physician reasons why he 
should use their own prescription blanks, and send his patients 
to them for their medicines? The fact is, the business of phar- 
macy is like any other business or calling in life. Pharmacy is fol- 
lowed by able, mediocre, and incompetent men — by honest, indif- 
ferent, and dishonest men. 

Mankind is the same all the world over, and when there are 
retail pharmacists who are indifferent to the quality of goods they 
dispense, and consider only the price of the goods in determining 
which they will buy, there will also be manufacturers who will 
make cheap preparations, and wholesalers who will supply them. 
The trade adapts itself to the requirements, and the demand regu- 
lates the supply. 

Every pharmacist knows that preparations are often offered 
in the market for less than the ingredients of an honestly made 
preparation would cost. If he buys this preparation, is he not 
guilty of encouraging and abetting dishonesty? Does the plea 
that he does not know the character of the preparation, but sup- 
poses it to be all right as long as he hears no complaint, exonerate 
him from the charge that he is willfully jeopardizing human life 
and health for the sake of pecuniary profit ? , Is he any more 
honest than one who would substitute cinchonine for quinine, or 
would only give half weight or measure of important medicines? 

Does not the fact that price lists quote "commercial red cin- 
chona" at 14 cents a pound prove that such stuff exists and is con- 
sumed as red cinchona ? And is it not likely that ' ' cheap ' ' goods 
are made from cheap materials? 

Everyone knows that there are honest and dishonest pharma- 
cists, honest and dishonest manufacturers, and honest and dis- 
honest goods in the market, and the latter kind is by no means rare. 



38 THE PRESCRIPTION 

Could we believe that every pharmacist was honest and compe- 
tent, and that all medicines were equally efficient, there would be 
no necessity for the physician to specify. 

When we have a valuable watch that needs repairs, we do not 
take it for granted that everyone who has a sign before his door 
announcing himself to be a watchmaker is, therefore, to be trusted 
with our watch, but we will pass a dozen watchmakers and go a 
long distance to take our watch to one we know to be a competent 
workman. If, then, we are so particular about our watch, why 
should we not be equally particular about our much more valuable 
selves ? When we choose a physician, we try to do so intelligently. 
We have, or think we have, reasons why we prefer our physician 
to the great number of other physicians around us. Why should 
we act differently in regard to the pharmacist, and prefer the one 
who happens to live nearest to us merely on account of this fact? 
Should we not rather, as patients, prefer to send our prescrip- 
tions to one whom we know to be competent and honest, rather 
than to those who may be equally honest and able, but about whom 
we know nothing — or, as the patient frequently can not judge, is 
it not best to trust our physician to choose for us, when his in- 
terests and ours are so intimately interwoven, for our health and 
the physician's reputation alike depend upon the quality of the 
medicine dispensed? Nay, even more, is it not to the honest and 
competent pharmacist's interest that business probity, and integ- 
rity, and professional ability should be recognized and appre- 
ciated? It is plainly the duty of the physician to advise the pa- 
tient how and where to obtain the best medicines, and he does so 
generally by using the prescription blank of the pharmacist whom 
he prefers. His use of such a blank is clearly a specification of 
the preparations of that particular pharmacist, and an indorse- 
ment of them. It does not seem to occur to those who argue against 
the physician's right to designate a certain manufacturer's prep- 
arations that he is equally wrong and unprofessional when he 
uses their blanks. If one is wrong, the other must be the same. 
In one case, it is an indorsement of a wholesale manufacturer, in 
the other case of a retail manufacturer, with the advantage in 
specifying the wholesale manufacturer's goods that he can obtain 
them everywhere and anywhere, while the others are obtainable 
only in one drug store. 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 39 

We must admit that there is a difference, and often a great dif- 
ference, between the various preparations sold under the same 
name ; that some are almost worthless, others very active. No 
matter if we try to argue that ours is just as good ; the physician 
is entitled to get what he prescribes. 

The retail pharmacist may convince the physicians in his neigh- 
borhood that he has the best and purest medicines, in which case 
the physicians will no doubt allow him to use his own prepara- 
tions. We have known of physicians who specified certain prepara- 
tions, but have given permission to individual druggists to use 
their own preparations when the prescriptions were taken to their 
drug stores. There is no objection to this; it is rarely the case 
that the physician specifies except in the case of the more im- 
portant remedies, or when he is not sure to which drug store his 
prescription will be taken. In regard to the majority of ingredients 
he leaves the choice to the pharmacist's judgment. When he does 
specify, his wishes should be respected and complied with as far 
as possible. 

To conclude, then, it is the writer's belief, based upon many 
years' experience, that the physician is derelict in a part of his 
duty if he does not see to it that his patient obtains proper medi- 
cines, and he is equally unmindful of his own best interests. 

He should, therefore, specify to the extent that he may know 
that proper remedies are dispensed, either by directing the pa- 
tient to go to a certain drug store, or by specifying a particular 
preparation with which he is familiar, and in which he has con- 
fidence, and it is certainly wrong for him to show less interest in 
so important a matter as medicines, than he shows in regard to 
his wearing apparel, his food, or fuel, or any other commodity in 
regard to which he exercises an intelligent choice. 

Form of Formulas 

The manner of writing permanent prescriptions does not vary 
much in different works, or even in different countries. Generally 
the names of the ingredients are written in one column, and the 
quantities in another column to the right. 

The oldest pharmacopoeia of which we have any knowledge is a 
large and very well preserved papyrus found about 1858 in the 



40 THE PRESCRIPTION 

Necropolis at Thebes. This papyrus is supposed to be one of the 
six works on medicine ascribed to the God Hermes (Egyptian 
Thoti), and was probably compiled and written at the great uni- 
versity at Thebes, about 1550 B. C, or at a time previous to the 
exodus of the Israelites from Egypt, or when Moses was still a 
young man. In this work the arrangement of the formulas, includ- 
ing such for decoctions, confections, pills, etc., are written accord- 
ing to the plan mentioned above, as will appear from the follow- 
ing translation of one of the formulas from the ancient hiero- 
glyphics : 

For Sick Intestines. 

Fennel seed %4 drachma. 

Goose fat % drachma. 

Milk 1 tenat. 

Boiling, stirring and eating. 

In these most ancient formulas, no introduction was used, but 
the writer, or writers, proceeded at once to the enumeration of the 
medicines, in this respect resembling the usage in the United 
States Pharmacopoeia. As in this latter work, the directions for 
compounding and for using the medicines also follow after the 
formula itself. 

In modern works, this same plan of one column for ingredients 
and one for quantities is generally adopted, because such an ar- 
rangement allows the reader to have a better oversight over the 
whole prescription, and, therefore, aids in avoiding mistakes in com- 
pounding. 

We copy the following from the Pharmacopoeia (1880) : 



Pilule Ferri Iodidi (Pills op Iodide of Iron) 

Grains. 

Reduced Iron, sixty grains 60 

Iodine, eighty grains 80 

Glycyrrhiza, in No. 60 powder, fifty grains 50 

Sugar, in fine powder, fifty grains 50 

Extract of Glycyrrhiza, in fine powder, twelve grains 12 

Acacia, in fine powder, twelve grains 12 

Water, 

Balsam of Tolu, 

Stronger Ether, each, a sufficient quantity 



264 



Grammes. 
4.00 
5.20 
3.25 
3.25 
0.75 
0.75 



17.20 



To make one hundred pills 100 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 41 

"To the Reduced Iron, contained in a porcelain capsule, add about erne hun- 
dred and twenty (120) grains, or about eight (8) gratnm-es of Water, and 
gradually add the Iodine, constantly triturating until the mixture ceases to 
have a reddish tint. Then add the remaining powders, previously mixed, and 
evaporate the excess of moisture on the water-bath, constantly stirring, until 
the mass has acquired a pilular consistence. Lastly, divide it into one hundred 
(100) pills. 

"Dissolve one (1) part of Balsam of Tolu in one (1) part of Stronger 
Ether, shake the pills with a sufficient quantity of this solution until they are 
uniformly coated, and put them on a plate to dry, occasionally stirring them 
until the drying is completed. 

' ' Keep the pills in a well-stopped bottle. ' ' 

In this formula we see an example of an unusually fully and 
carefully constructed formula. Not only are the names of the in- 
gredients made prominent by a heavier type and capitalization, 
and the quantities expressed in both the ordinary apothecaries' 
weight and metric weights, but quantities are also printed in 
italicized words, so that a mistake in compounding can only be 
due to carelessness. 

Ordinarily such a formula would be written somewhat differ- 
ently, and would commence with an imperative "take" or "take 
of," so that this formula would, perhaps, read as follows: 

Take of 

Reduced iron 60 grs. 

Iodine 80 grs. 

Glycyrrhiza, powdered 50 grs. 

Sugar, powdered 50 grs. 

Extract of glycyrrhiza, powdered 12 grs. 

Acacia, powdered 12 grs. 

Water q. s. 

Mix. Divide into 100 pills ; coat with tolu balsam. 

Instead of giving full directions for making the pills it is here 
taken for granted that the pharmacist possesses enough knowledge 
to make the pills without them. The full directions for making 
the pills might, however, be given just as well with this formula 
as with any other. 

Still another method of writing the formula would be to inter- 
sperse directions with the ingredients. 

Take of 

Reduced iron 60 grs. 

Place into a porcelain capsule and add 

Water 2 fl. drs. 



42 THE PRESCRIPTION 

Add gradually with constant stirring 

Iodine 80 grs. 

Mix together 

Powdered glycyrrhiza 50 grs. 

Powdered sugar 50 grs. 

Powdered extract of glycyrrhiza 12 grs. 

Powdered acacia 12 grs. 

Add to the contents of the capsule. Mix thoroughly and evapo- 
rate to pilular consistence. Divide into 100 pills. Coat with tolu 

balsam. 

This formula is easily followed and compounded, and, there- 
fore, this is a very good method of writing working formulas. 

Probably the least desirable method is to write the formula in 
the form of solid matter straight across the lines, as in the fol- 
lowing example : 

"Take 60 grains of reduced iron and place it into a porcelain capsule with 
2 fiuidrams of water. Gradually add 80 grains of iodine, stirring constantly 
until the mixture assumes a greenish tint. Mix separately 50 grains each of 
powdered glycyrrhiza and of powdered sugar, and 12 grains each of powdered 
extract of glycyrrhiza and of powdered acacia, and add the powders to the 
contents of the capsule. Mix all together thoroughly and evaporate to a 
pilular consistence, and then divide into 100 pills. Coat the pills with tolu 
balsam." 

Of these different methods of writing formulas the best one for 
general use is an enumeration of all of the ingredients and quan- 
tities in two parallel columns, and then the directions for com- 
pounding, unless the latter is so simple that no directions are 
needed. 

Whenever practicable, the best plan of constructing a formula 
is to use "parts by weight," as in the United States Phar- 
macopoeia, instead of giving actual weights or measures, but of 
the many and great advantages of this method we will speak 
further on in the proper place. 



PART II 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

System of Numeration. 

When primitive men had advanced so far in civilization that 
exactness in all their dealings became desirable, then some system 
of counting and expressing quantities of weight, measure, length, 
and time became necessary. 

The simplest division of time, which is noticeable even to the 
lower animals, is that into day and night. This must, of course, 
have been impressed on the minds of our earliest human ancestors, 
or perhaps have been already a conscious reality to the higher 
apes before they commenced to develop a language and to emerge 
into humanity. The division into lunar months required a higher 
development of intellect and the division of the day into hours 
and minutes, or the establishment of years and calendar months, 
based upon the seasons together with astronomical observations, 
necessarily implied a much more developed civilization, and could 
not have taken place until the evolution of mankind had made 
considerable headway. 

In order, however, to count the hours, the months, and years, 
or even long previous to that, to count the members of their fam- 
ilies, the number of their flocks, or of any of their belongings, 
a system of numeration was required by men, and it was but 
natural that the individual would keep tally on his fingers as 
he counted. Wherever we find men, no matter how low they 
may be in the scale of intellectual development, if they can count 
at all they count in multiples of five, the number of fingers of 
one hand. Beyond this they may vary in their system of count- 
ing; sometimes counting the fingers of both hands, and then 
commencing over again, or they may also count their toes. Many 
of the savage nations are said to have no words in their language 
for numbers over ten, and can form no ideas or conceptions of 

43 



44 THE PRESCRIPTION 

numbers beyond the number of their fingers, all over ten being 
' ' many. ' ' 

As an example of primitive numeration we may quote the 
system of counting used by the Guinea Indians. These Indians 
have words for only four numbers, corresponding to four fingers, 
and as they come to the fifth they say "one hand," instead of 
"five fingers." Six is "a hand and a finger," seven, "a hand 
and two fingers;" when they reach the tenth finger they say 
"two hands;" then they count along the toes until they reach 
fifteen or "three hands," and when they come to twenty they 
pass to the next column, as it were, and say, not "four hands," 
but ' ' one man. ' ' After this they proceed by a system of twenties, 
"two men," "three men," etc.; forty-six being "two men, a 
hand, and a finger." 

The habit of counting in multiples of five, therefore, was in- 
grafted into the human mind by the Omnipotent when He created 
man by development from five-fingered apes. 

The individual human being undergoes, in his embryonic and 
foetal conditions, all the steps of the evolution by which his race 
became developed in the course of ages from the lower organisms 
to the shape of the man-like apes, and, finally, to that of man 
himself, so that his developing body in turn resembles the embryo 
of fish, reptile, bird, quadruped, and ape, but does not stop at 
any of these stages, but progresses to the form of man. So also 
the intellect of the individual human being, although born with 
different capacity for development, yet goes through all the stages 
of mental progress, which has characterized the advancement of 
his race up to his own position in the race, from the speechless 
ape to the scientist and philosopher of today. Infants, there- 
fore, whether born in the hut of the Hottentot or Papuan, or in 
the domicile of the most intellectual parents, learn instinctively 
to count on their fingers in multiples of five, and will presumably 
do so to the end of time. 

We may take it for granted that this habit of counting in 
multiples of five is so firmly ingrained into the human mind that 
nothing will ever eradicate it. It is, therefore, somewhat Don 
Quixotic when here and there some have speculated about the 
introduction of an arbitrary system of numeration based on 
multiples of eight, called an "octonary system." Such a system 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 45 

was proposed in the last century, by Swedenborg, the religious 
visionist and founder of a new religious sect, and has lately 
been referred to again by a well-known writer* on pharmaceuti- 
cal subjects, and the reason stated for this desire to revolutionize 
our methods of numerical notation is the insignificant fact that ten 
can not be successively divided by two until brought down to the 
number one. To say that this fact makes ten an inconvenient peri- 
odical number for arithmetical notation, is simply an assertion 
based on no foundation of facts, and without any advantage to 
be gained by a change. Moreover, it would be almost, if not 
entirely, impossible to learn to think in an octonary system, for 
if we watch ourselves carefully we find ourselves continually 
using the fingers of our hands as aids in our calculations, not 
only when we were school children, worrying over our lessons 
in addition, but even when we are grown tip. In fact, an octonary 
system of numerical notation would have been possible only if 
mankind had ascended or developed through the ateles, or four- 
fingered apes, and became impossible when the first primitive 
man realized that he was created with five fingers on each hand. 

Civilized man soon reduced numeration to a definite system, 
and the decimal notation, based on the number of fingers, was at 
an early date of the history of mankind in universal use. Our 
methods of counting and all of our arithmetical calculations are, 
therefore, decimal. It would be desirable that our systems of 
money and of weights and measures should be in accord with 
our methods of counting and calculating, and we Americans, who 
boast of being a practical nation, at an early date of our national 
existence adopted the dollar with its subdivision into dimes, cents, 
and mills, instead of the pounds, shillings, and pence of our 
mother country. The English language will pi'obably soon be 
the universal language of commerce, and the dollar the uni- 
versally adopted international coin, and all we need now is to 
bring our systems of weights and of measures, of length and ca- 
pacity into accord with our money system, and with the weights, 
and measures of the balance of the nations of earth, so that we 
may have one universal language, and one system of money, of 
weights, and of measures. To meet with cosmopolitan indorse- 



*See "A Manual of Weights, Measures, and Specific Gravity," by Professor Oscar 
Oldberg, page 14. 



46 THE PRESCRIPTION 

merit and adoption, sucli systems miist be decimal. This is the 
one essential requirement. If the systems of weights and meas- 
ures stand in some simple relation to each other, so much the 
better; and if the unit from which all are calculated is some 
geographical magnitude, so that the standard could be reproduced 
if it was ever lost, this would be still better. The only system 
of weights and measures now known which stands any chance 
whatever of becoming international and cosmopolitan is the deci- 
mal or metric system. When we have an international system 
of weights and measures, with or without an international lan- 
guage, a cosmopolitan or international pharmacopoeia becomes a 
possibility and will no doubt soon be a reality. 

Oldberg's Proposed System of Weights and Measures. 

Some years ago Professor Oscar Oldberg proposed a new sys- 
tem of apothecaries' weights, which it may be worth while to 
consider in connection with the subject of binary subdivision, 
since the entire system is proposed for the purpose of securing the 
supposed advantages of this consecutive division by 2. 

The system proposed is as follows : 

Weight. 

1 troy ounce = 8 drams. 

1 apothecaries ' dram = 4 grams. 
1 gram = 16 (new) grains. 

One (new) grain, therefore, is equal to % 6 gram. 

Measure. 

1 ftuidounce = 8 fluidrams. 

1 fluidram = 4 fluigrams. 

1 fluigram = 16 (new) minims. 

One (new) minim, therefore, is equal to % 6 fluigram. 
In favor of this system Professor Oldberg says: 

' ' It will be seen that the above plan involves also a change from 60 to 64 
in the number of grains to the dram. Such a change would be of great ad- 
vantage, as 60 can not be divided successively by 2 without fractions, more 
than twice, whereas 64 can be divided into halves, quarters, eighths, six- 
teenths, thirty-seconds, and sixty-fourths. 

To judge of this alleged desirability, the writer took a popular 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 47 

work on therapeutics and ascertained the proportions of the frac- 
tions of grains and drams used in giving the doses, and found 
that of binary fractions y 2 was used nineteen times, and % three 
times, and the other fractions, such as %, % 6 , y S2 , %4, not at 
all, while in the same pages Avhich contained the same fractions, 
other fractions, such as %, %, Y 10 , Viz, Vm, Y20, Mso, %o, %o, %oo, 
etc., were used altogether 106 times, or nearly five times as often. 

Taking up a list of formulas of pills, in which, if anywhere, 
binary fractions would be convenient, it was found that on ten 
pages taken at random y> was used thirty-two times, *4 nuie 
times, i/g fourteen times, % 6 once, and lower binary fractions 
not at all, while in the same pages other fractions, %, %, x / 10 , 
Yzo, etc., were used altogether fifty-one times. Since these binary 
subdivisions are more desirable in formulas for pills than else- 
where, on account of the manner of subdividing the mass, this 
would seem to show that the desirability of this new system is 
imaginary, and not based on any actual wants of the professions 
concerned. On the contrary, the frequency of occurrence of 
such fractions as Y 5 , y 10 , % , y 50 , ^ioo* etc., shows that there 
is the unconscious desire to use decimals in preference to other 
fractions, and this becomes even clearer when we take into con- 
sideration only the binary fractions below !/2, for then we find 
that they were used only twenty-four times, while other fractions 
below 1/9, which were not obtained by successive subdivision by 
two, were used 157 times. In this enumeration no count was 
made of whole grains to ascertain what fraction of the dram they 
represented, but if this had been done the argument would be 
very much stronger against the proposed new system. 

The claim, then, that the practice of the professions demands 
a system capable of binary subdivisions, is based on an erroneous 
impression on the part of the .proposer of this new system. And, 
indeed, we could hardly expect anything different if we consider 
the development of a knowledge of numbers and their relations 
in the human mind. The most advanced pedagogues of modern 
times teach us that children should be made thoroughly familiar 
with the number one before proceeding to other numbers. When 
the child is thoroughly drilled in all the relations of this number, 
and all the changes and combinations of 1, 1 + 1=2, 1x1=1, 
1-1=0, 1 + 1 = 1, etc., it is then taught that 2 + 1=3, 2 + 2=4, 



48 THE PRESCRIPTION 

2x1=2, 2x2=4, etc., until it is familiar with all the relations 
of the number two, together with the lower number already 
learned. To be able to use higher numbers requires a higher 
grade of intelligence and longer education, and 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 
and 10 are successively considered until the child, step by step, 
widens its range of thought and ability to use figures. Beyond 
ten we have essentially a repetition of the multiples of former 
numbers, and an amplification of the principles already taught. 
It is, therefore, but natural that children or others with limited 
education should prefer calculations involving mainly the number 
two, but it is an adaptation of ourselves to lower intellectual devel- 
opment when we propose to conform not only our system of numera- 
tion, but also our systems of weights and measures to the capac- 
ities of the less educated, instead of bringing the masses up to a 
level in which the decimal system 'is used and preferred. 

In thus presenting the desirability of a decimal system we have 
written as if the needs of the medical profession were the only 
ones concerned, but the world at large in its various activities, 
science, mechanics, commerce, etc., is equally interested in having 
not only a decimal, but also a uniform system of Aveights and 
measures. Our own country has felt the handicap of our anti- 
quated standards of weights and measures very much, because in 
competing for the trade of the world in countries which use the 
metric system of measurements, our manufacturers were and are 
not generally prepared to make machinery, etc., according to 
metric specifications. 

It is interesting to observe in this connection that the proposi- 
tion to divide the dram into eighths, sixteenths, thirty-seconds, 
etc., is not original with Professor Oldberg, but that it was for- 
merly used and then discarded. 

We have already made reference .to the oldest known pharmaco- 
poeia, an Egyptian papyrus (see page 39) found in the Necrop- 
olis of Thebes. In this work the weights and measures are ex- 
pressed by a number of signs, while the numbers are expressed by 
lines and hooks. The unit of this system of weights was probably 
closely related to the later Arabic drachma or dirliem, which was 
equal to about 3 grams, but from various considerations it is sup- 
posed that this unit was double the drachma, or the di-drachma-. 
This unit of weight was subdivided as is now again proposed by 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 



49 



Professor Oldberg, into halves, quarters, eighths, sixteenths, thirty- 
seconds, and sixty-fourths, as is seen from the symbols as used in 
the ancient hieroglyphics: 



1 di-drachma. 



y 16 di-drachma. 




1/32 di-drachma. 



1/64 di-drachma. 



nnnu 

nnn» 
nnnn 

In this work the above fractions are most frequently employed, 
and % 6 was especially frequently used, because it was believed 
that a medicine, when given in the dose of % 6 of the di-drachma, 
was peculiarly active. 

The unit of measures of capacity was the teiiat, which contained 
about 600 cubic centimeters. This measure and its subdivisions 
were expressed as follows : 



Tenat. 



% tenat. 



O or 

+ 
X 



H + Vs = 5 /e tenat. 



% + Vs = % tenat. 

H + K = V12 tenat. 

i£ + y 2 = y A tenat. 



+ 
+ + 

X3 



The modern sign aa, meaning that equal quantities of several 
ingredients are to be taken, was expressed by writing a short per- 
pendicular line to the right of the name of the ingredient, thus : I 

A further peculiarity of this work was that the headings and the 
quantities were written with red ink to distinguish them from the 
other writing. 

It will be seen from this short sketch of the oldest known system 
employing the dram that binary subdivision was in use nearly 3,500 
years ago, and this division was afterwards lost, or discarded, prob- 
ably because experience demonstrated its undesirability. At all 



50 THE PRESCRIPTION 

events, whatever may be the reason of its subsequent disuse, 
whether it was because it was better adapted to a civilization in 
its infancy, and discarded as this civilization grew, thus simply 
going through the process found best adapted to the growing in- 
tellect of the child, or whether it was discarded from political or ar- 
bitrary motives, the effort to turn time back thirty-five centuries, 
and to resurrect from among the mummies of an almost forgotten 
race this method of dividing the dram, when the world has nearly 
outgrown the dram altogether, can but meet Avith signal failure, 
and the system containing the dram of 60 grains will be replaced, 
not by one containing a new dram of 4 grams, but by the system 
which is based on the gram itself. 

Avoirdupois Weight. 

This system of weights is used for weighing all coarse and heavy 
articles, or for commercial purposes generally. 

The system as generally used in this country is as follows : 

16 ounces = 1 pound. 

100 pounds = 1 hundredweight. 

20 hundredweights = 1 ton. 

Another system, formerly used generally, but now only used 
in some custom house transactions, and, perhaps, in some places at 
coal mines, etc., is as follows: 

16 ounces = 1 pound. 

28 pounds = 1 quarter. 

4 quarters = 1 hundredweight. 

20 hundredweights = 1 ton. 

And the following terms are also in use : 

100 pounds of grain or flour = 1 cental. 

100 pounds of dry fish = 1 quintal. 

100 pounds of nails = 1 keg. 

196 pounds of flour = 1 barrel. 

200 pounds of pork or beef = 1 barrel. 

280 pounds of salt = 1 barrel. 

240 pounds of lime = 1 cask. 

Many articles, such as grain, dried fruits, seeds, coal, etc.. are 
sold by the "bushel," the weight of which in regard to each sepa- 
rate article is fixed by law in the various states of the Union. The 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 51 

"bushel" in regard to these articles is, therefore, not a measure 
but a legal weight. Formerly the lowest denomination of this sys- 
tem was the grain, which was determined by act of Parliament as 
follows : "A cubic inch of distilled water, weighed in air by brass 
weights at the temperature of 62° F., the barometer being at 30 
inches, is equal to 252.458 grains." The grain had been in use 
previous to this law, and this was only legally fixing, its value, for, 
of course, such an odd number and fraction would not otherwise 
have been fixed as the value of a cubic inch of water in grains. 
The pound contains 7,000 such grains. The avoirdupois ounce be- 
ing the sixteenth part of a pound, or of 7,000 grains, contains 
437 ^ grains. Formerly an avoirdupois dram (one-sixteenth of 
an avoirdupois ounce) was in use, which contained 27 n /32 grains, 
but this dram is obsolete in this country. Ordinarily the smallest 
denomination of this system of weights is the ounce, less quantities 
being expressed in fractions of the ounce, or, in medical formulas, 
occasionally in grains. 

The term "avoirdupois" is said to be derived from avoirs, Fr., 
which means "havings," the ancient name for portable goods, 
property, or chattels, and poids, Fr., meaning "weight;" and the 
portable goods themselves were originally designated as avoirdu- 
pois, as in a law enacted during the reign of King Edward III., in 
the year 1353, in which it was decreed that "we will and establish, 
that one weight, one measure, and one yard be throughout the 
land, and that woolens and all manner of avoirdupois be weighed." 

Gradually, however, the term lost this meaning, and only two 
centuries later, during the reign of King Henry VIII., in the year 
1532, another law was promulgated, in which it was ordered that 
"beef, pork, mutton, and veal shall be sold by weight called 'haver- 
dupois.' " It will be seen from these two quotations that the term 
avoirdupois, which had been applied in the fourteenth century 
to the goods themselves, had in the sixteenth century been trans- 
ferred to the system of weights employed for these kinds of goods. 

All of the goods which the pharmacist buys by weight are 
weighed with avoirdupois weights, and it is very important to 
remember this, although it is often forgotten. The writer has 
frequently heard pharmacists accusing wholesalers and manufac- 
turers of giving short weight because 1 ounce of quinine did not 
contain 480 grains, or y 8 ounce of morphine is not 60 grains, but 



52 THE PRESCRIPTION 

54.68+ grains. It is a common error to speak of a "dram vial of 
morphine," although the vial contains not a dram, but % avoir- 
dupois ounce. Many pharmacists have only the apothecaries' 
weights from 1 ounce downwards, as used for the prescription 
scales, and when making their preparations they use the weights 
of their counter scales, or avoirdupois weights, without making 
allowance for the fact that each avoirdupois ounce is 42% grains 
short in weight, when compared with the apothecaries' ounces 
which should be used. Another common error is, in making prep- 
arations, to take one ounce of quinine, as purchased, for example, 
to make 480 1-grain quinine pills, thus making each pill about 9 per 
cent short weight. 

The terms of the avoirdupois weights are abbreviated as follows : 

The ounce, oz. or av. oz. 

The pound, lb. 

The hundredweight, cwt. 

The ton, T. 

While "oz.," when standing alone, generally means avoirdupois 
ounce, it is customary, in pharmaceutical works, to write, ' ' av. oz., ' ' 
singular and "av. ozs.," plural, to insure exactness. 

The numbers are expressed in Arabic numerals preceding the 
signs or symbols. 

Troy Weight. 

This system of weights is used in weighing gold, silver, and 
jewels, and also formerly in philosophical experiments, although 
for the latter purpose the metric or decimal system is now uni- 
versally employed. 

The table is as follows: 



24 grains = 1 pennyweight. 

20 pennyweights = 1 ounce. 
12 ounces = 1 pound. 



The signs used for these weights are: 

Grain, gr. 

Ounce, oz., or troy oz. 

Pound, lb. 

The term "karat" is also often used in expressing the weight 
of diamonds and other precious stones, and this weight is equiva- 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 53 

lent, to four troy grains. When used to express the fineness of 
gold the karat means the twenty-fourth part, and "eighteen karat 
gold," for example, means 1 % 4 of gold and % 4 of baser metal. 
Troy weights are never used in medicine, although the term "troy 
ounce ' ' is commonly used in medical works and formulas. Really, 
however, the apothecaries' ounce is meant, which is equivalent to 
the troy ounce but is differently subdivided and designated by a 
different symbol or sign. 

The derivation of the term "troy," as applied to this system 
of weights has been explained in different ways. One explanation 
is that the ounce of this system was brought from Grand Cairo, 
in Egypt, about the time of the crusades, and was first adopted 
in Troyes, a town in France, and at one time capital of the old 
province Champagne. Another explanation, however, is that Troy 
novant was an old monkish name for London, and that the term 
"troy weights" is, therefore, simply equivalent to saying "Lon- 
don weights." 

In the year 1266, under King Henry III., of England, a law 
was enacted that 32 grains of wheat from the middle of the ear, 
well dried, should weigh a pennyweight, of which 20 should go to 
tlie ounce. Twelve such ounces made the pound, and the latter, 
therefore, contained 7,680 grains, but as the pennyweight was 
afterwards reduced to 24 grains, the present troy pound contains 
only 5,760 grains. 

The term "ounce" (uncia, ce, f., Lat. ; once, Fr., unze, G.), origin- 
ally meant one-twelfth, or one of twelve, and was applied to weights 
as well as to measures of length. The Latin word uncia (prob- 
ably from unicus, a, um, adj., meaning one and no more, sole, single) 
means the twelfth of the pound, or ounce, as well as the twelfth of 
the foot, or inch, and various other derivative words are used in 
Latin, such as semuncia, (B, f ., half-ounce, half -inch ; sescunx, uncis, 
m., one and a half ounce ; quincunx, uncis, m., five ounces, five 
inches ; sexunx, or sextunx, uncis, m. J , six ounces ; septunx, uncis, 
m., seven ounces, or seven inches, or seven-twelfths; deunx, uncis 
m., eleven-twelfths, eleven portions of any weight or measure 
which is subdivided into twelve parts; therefore, eleven ounces, 
or eleven inches, etc. 

Troy weight is of interest in connection with the subject of the 
prescription, mainly because we receive from it the grain, which 



54 THE PRESCRIPTION 

serves as the unit of the system of apothecaries' weights, which is 
still employed in England and this country. 

Apothecaries' Weight. 

This system of weights is still in favor in a few countries, as, 
for instance, in Russia, England, and the United States, where it 
is used by physicians, druggists, photographers, and a few others. 
In all other countries of the civilized Avorld it has been supplanted 
by a superior decimal system. 

The table of this system is as follows: 

20 grains = 1 scruple. 

3 scruples = 1 dram. 

8 drams = 1 ounce. 

12 ounces = 1 pound. 

It will be noticed that the ounce contains 480 grains, and is, 
therefore, identical with the troy ounce, for which reason the 
apothecaries' ounce is generally, though perhaps not quite prop- 
erly, spoken of as troy ounce. The pounds of the troy and 
apothecaries' systems of weights are also of equal value, but in 
prescriptions and in medical formulas the pound is seldom or 
never used, and therefore, it would not be improper to omit the 
last line from the above table. 

The following signs are generally used to express the quantities : 

Grain, gr. 
Scruple, 3 
Dram, 3 
Ounce, I 
Pound, Tb 

The grain (granwn, i, n.) is the same grain which is the unit 
of troy weight, and was based on the weight of the grain of wheat, 
as already explained. This weight has no fixed value, and the 
brass weights vary according to the country in which they are 
manufactured, and in consequence many of the little brass 
weights used in this country are uncertain and inaccurate. 

It should be remembered that in Latin prescriptions the 
abbreviation used as a sign is always "gr.," never "grs.," as 
will be explained further on. In English formulas it is cus- 
tomary to write "grs." for the plural. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 55 

The scruple (scrupulum, i, n. ; formerly also called scrupus, 
scrupulus, scripulus, scriptulus, i, m., or scriplum, scripulum, 
scriptulum, i, n.) was the lowest unit of weight among the ancient 
Romans. The word is said to be derived from a Latin word, mean- 
ing ' ' a small stone, ' ' or pebble, such as might find its way between 
the sandal and foot, from which the meaning "a small objection or 
difficulty, ' ' or scruple, is also derived. 

The word ' ' scruple ' ' was also used as a measure of time, length, 
or surface, although this use is obsolete. 

Among the ancient Chaldees the scruple signified the 1/1080 
part of an hour, and in this sense the term was also used by the 
Jews, Arabs, and other Orientals. Later, the scruple was the 
% part of an hour, and was itself subdivided into "second 
scruples" (scrupulum secundum), from which our modern 
designation of "seconds" is derived. 

In astronomy the term scruple was also used. For instance, 
Rees' Cyclopaedia describes: "Scruples eclipsed — that part of 
the moon's diameter which enters the shadow, expressed in the 
same measure in which the diameter of the moon is expressed, ' ' 
and the same work mentions also "scruples of immersion, scruples 
of emersion," etc., referring to lunar eclipses. 

The origin of the sign for the scruple, 9 , is obscure. In a 
paper by Chas. Rice, Ph.D., on the origin of our pharmaceutical 
signs for weights and measures, which was published in New 
Remedies of July, 1877, the origin of the scruple sign is thus 
explained : ' ' The sign 9 , which has been in use for a long 
period, and which we now employ, derives its origin from the 
Greek letter gamma (y), which is the first letter of the Greek word 
ypd/x/xa (gramma, ce, f.), at present the gramme or gram of the 
metric system, but which is really the Greek equivalent for the 
Latin scrupuluyn. The similarity of the written character of 

the Greek letter gamma,* V, when compared with the sign for 
the scruple, especially as it is sometimes written. <y7 , is quite 
apparent. ' ' 

Another somewhat similar explanation refers to the close resem- 
blance of the written scruple sign, as above, and a slurred written 

■"s, " the initial letter of the Latin Avord scrupidum: 



56 THE PRESCRIPTION 

While it is possible, in fact probable, that one of these is the 
correct explanation of the origin of the scruple sign as used in 
medicine, yet it is a fact that the sign, as now printed, is of 
much greater antiquity than even Greek civilization. 

It was used, for instance, as a letter in an unknown alphabet, 
a few letters of which were found engraved on a bronze celt 
found among the relics of ancient Eome, as will be seen by 
reference to a drawing of this rude bronze implement. It also 




formed a character of an alphabet which was used in the inscrip- 
tions on the curious and valuable relics of the prehistoric Amer- 
ican mound-builders, known as the Davenport tablets, although 
in this case there were two central strokes instead of one, as 
shown in this illustration: *« 

In "Atlantis, the Antediluvian World," the author bases an 
argument in favor of his theory of a continent and civilization 
submerged in the Atlantic Ocean on the similarity of some of 
the words and characters used in writing among the Indians, 
Aztecs, and mound-builders of America, and among the pre- 
historic nations of the old world, and this sign, now used by us 
to designate the scruple, was one of these characters. 

The fact that the scruple sign, as now used, is a prehistoric 
character, and occurs in various modifications in several alpha- 
bets, suggests the possibility that it may have descended to us 
through succeeding civilizations, perhaps from the bronze age, 
or even from still earlier times, but that the true history of its 
origin can no longer be traced. 

The former use of the word scruple in astronomy as referring 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 57 

to phases of the moon's eclipses, and the suggestion of a crescent 
and radius in the shape of the sign as we now use it, is peculiar, 
though probably only a queer coincidence. 

The scruple is rarely used in prescriptions at present, and the 
probability is that this sign will be obsolete even before the re- 
mainder of this system of weights' has .finally been discarded. 
It is customary already to prefer to express all quantities less 
than a dram in grains, rather than in scruples, even when 20 
or 40 grains are the desired quantities. 

The drachma was a silver coin, the unit of the monetary system 
of ancient Greece. The figures give a fair representation of the 
two sides of the coin in natural size: 





This coin varied somewhat in value in different countries and 
at different times, but was always the 1/6000 part of a talent of 
silver. The Attic talent was worth about $990; the iEginian, 
$1,555 ; the Jewish about $1,980. The Attic drachma was worth 
about 18 cents; the iEginian somewhat more. The modern 
drachma is worth 19% cents. 

The talent was divided into 60 minus, each of which latter 
contained 100 drachmas. Eeally only 96 drachmas were neces- 
sary to make a mina, but four were added for good measure. 
The drachma contains six oboli, and there were smaller coins 
called obolus, diabolon, triabolon or hemi-drachma, and tetra- 
bolion. Two oboli made 1 scruple. There were also larger coins, 
as the di-drachma, tri-drachma, and tetra-drachma. All of these 
coins were also used as weights, the talent weighing about 26.20 
kilos. The drachma varied in weight, the average weight of 
five in the British Museum being 60.92 grains each, but some 
of 68.10 grains in weight are also known. 

The word drachma, ce, f., is said to have originally meant "a 
handful" (Spax^, from Spacro-eo/wu, to grasp with the hand), be- 
cause a man could grasp six small bars of iron, called oboli. In 
more modern pharmaceutical language a word derived from the 



58 THE PRESCRIPTION 

same root is used, namely dragmis, is, f. (Spay /As), a small handful, 
applied to a measure for teas, species, etc. 

The Italians, in their language, dropped the harsher sound of 
"eh" and changed the word to "dramma, " from which we get 
our word "dram." 

Another explanation of the word drachma is that it is from the 
Arabic draJim, which was derived from two words meaning 
"away" and "to spend," and referred to the amount a traveler 
would spend in a day. 

The origin of the dram sign, o, is explained in several ways, 
the most probable being that it is derived from the Egyptian 
weights. By referring to page 49 it will be noticed that the sign 
for "one-half" tenat is a figure resembling the modern Arabic 
numeral 3, or the sign of the dram, 5. The Egyptian unit of 
weight was equivalent to the later Greek di-draclima, or two drams. 
The sign for "one-half" was not only used to designate measure, 
but also to designate weight, and then meant half a di-drachma, 
or a weight which later on became the unit of weights among the 
Greeks, the drachma, and it was but natural that the Greeks 
adopted the Egyptian symbol to express this weight, and through 
them it has descended to our times. This character is also" one of 
the letters of the ancient Phoenician, Hebraic, or Samaritan alpha- 
bet. It is also one of the letters of the Egyptian hieratic alphabet, 
which has the same relation to the hieroglyphic alphabet as our 
written letters have to the printed characters. The hieratic char- 
acter stood for the hieroglyphic "owl," meaning "m, " and this 
probably accounts for the figure of the owl on one side of the 
Greek drachma coin. 

The division of the dram into sixty grains, or of the scruple 
into twenty grains, is comparatively modern, as the grain itself 
only dates back to the year 1266. 

The term ounce was applied to the twelfth part of any magni- 
tude, whether of length, surface, or capacity, and meant a twelfth 
part of the pound, or an ounce, as well as the twelfth part of a 
foot, or an inch. The ounce (uncia, or, f.), consisting of eight 
drams, was one of the weights of ancient Greece, and 12)4 ounces 
made one mina, about equivalent to our pound. The extra half 
ounce required to make the mina was due to the four di'achmas 
given for good measure, as already explained. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 59 

Various explanations of the origin of the sign for the ounce, §, 
have been given. It is possible that it was derived from the dram 
sign by adding an extra hook to indicate that it was the next 
higher denomination of weight. Mr. Chas. Rice, Ph.D., in the 
article already referred to, gave the following explanation : ' ' The 
sign for ounce, §, is nothing else than the Greek letter £ (x). Its 
origin admits of two explanations. The Greek fluidounce, which 
was called baphion, or oxybaphion (6£v/3d<j>iov, OHYBA<t>ION), bore 
a certain relation to the solid ounce (it held nearly two ounces). 
It was usually denoted by the first two letters, written from the 
right to the left, thus: HO, or £o. Finally, the letter £ (x) may 
have been chosen alone, to denote the solid ounce. A much more 
probable explanation, however, is this, that the Greek word for 
ounce, uggia, pronounced ungia (ovyyla, OYITIA), has itself 
given rise to the sign. Namely, the two central g's of the word 
have been joined to a sort of monogram, which bore a great re- 
semblance to the letter H (X), in place of which the smaller letter 
£ (x) was naturally substituted in current handwriting." 

The signs for the pound, lb. and lb., are simply abbreviations 
of the Latin word libra, ce, f., a balance, a pound. The sign, lb., 
without the stroke should be used for the avoirdupois pound of 
sixteen ounces; the sign, lb., with the stroke, for the troy and 
apothecaries' pound of twelve ounces each. The stroke in the 
latter sign represents the beam of a balance. Among the Romans 

the pound was often designated ,/-* !_£, also oZ^l or J fo 

In the central figure of the first of these signs we find a rude ef- 
fort to picture a beam balance, and the two letters stand for "a 
pound's weight," Librce Pondus. In the second sign the attempt 
to represent a beam balance is unmistakable, and both together 
serve to explain clearly the origin of the transverse stroke in lb 
and its near relative, £. 

Using Only Grain Weights. 

In the construction of. many formulas it will be found very 
convenient to use only grains, ignoring all higher denominations 
entirely. This saves much calculation, but, on the other hand, 
necessitates the purchase of a set of weights of 1,000 grains and 
less. Such sets are to be had, consisting of 1,000, 500, 200, 200, 



60 THE PRESCRIPTION 

100, 50, 20, 20, 10, 5, 2, 2, and 1-grain weights, and fractions of a 
grain. It is also well to buy or make a number of extra weights 
of 2,000, 2,000, 5,000, and 10,000 grains each. 

In manufacturing processes the metric system is so far superior 
in convenience to all other systems, that the writer would dislike 
to go back to the old weights. But there are a large number of 
preparations commonly sold which cannot well be made by using 
metric weights, unless apothecaries' weights are first translated 
or transposed into grams. Such transpositions, however, intro- 
duce chances of error, where otherwise none would exist, and 
under such circumstances it is better to use apothecaries' weight. 
This is the case, for example, in making elixirs, in which the tea- 
spoonful or dessertspoonful contains a certain portion of a grain 
or a number of grains of some remedy; or in pills made to con- 
tain certain quantities in grains. 

If it is desired to make 10 gallons of an elixir containing 2 
grains of some certain alkaloidal salt in each teaspoonful, it is, of 
course, necessary to ascertain how many teaspoonfuls are con- 
tained in this quantity, and a tedious calculation is required to 
reduce the 10 gallons to minims. Ten gallons is equal to 614,400 
minims; the teaspoonful equals 75 minims; 10 gallons, therefore, 
contains 8,190 teaspoonfuls, and as each of these is to contain 2 
grains, 16,380 grains of the alkaloidal salt will be required. It is 
easier to make out a formula, saying 16,380 grains, than to re- 
duce all this again to drams, ounces, and pounds. 

The advantage of using grains alone is clearly appreciated in 
formulas for pills, as in this example: 

Compound Cathartic Pills. 

Each, pill contains 

Compound extract of colocynth l%o 8 rs> 

Abstract of jalap 1 gr. 

Mild chloride of mercury 1 gr. 

Gamboge % g r - 

Now, if we wish to make pills in large quantities we must adjust 
the formula for the mass to our machine ; if the latter cuts 50 pills, 
we determine the number of boluses to be cut, which will be 2, 4, 8, 
16, 32, 64, 128, or some number obtained by continuous multiplica- 
tion by two, because the mass is made into suitable boluses by sub- 
dividing into equal halves (by weight, on a scale) until the proper 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 61 

size boluses are obtained. Suppose tbat we wish to make out a 
formula for 128 boluses, or 6,400 pills. Multiplying the ingredi- 
ents of 1 pill by 6,400, we obtain the following : 

Take of 

Compound extract of eolocynth 8,320 grs. 

Abstract of jalap 6,400 grs. 

Mild chloride of mercury 6,400 grs. 

Gamboge 1,600 grs. 

Water 1,230 grs. 

We will suppose that a trial shows that 1,230 grains of water 
will just suffice to make a proper mass; we then divide the mass 
into two equal halves by weight ; one of these halves is again divided 
into halves, and so on until as the result of the seventh successive 
division we have 2 boluses each of which equals %28 °f the whole 
mass ; we roll out one of these on what appears to be the most suit- 
able of our pill-machines and cut it. We find that this bolus will 
not roll out to 50 pills, but only to 47 pills. "We carefully knead in 
powdered licorice root, or other appropriate inert substances, until 
the mass cuts exactly into 50 pills ; if it was necessary to add 5 
grains licorice root to do this, we add that much for each bolus, or 
a total of 640 grains. It may be necessary also to add 30 grains 
more of water. This must be thoroughly worked up together, and 
also added to the formula, which will then be as follows : 

Take of 

Compound extract of eolocynth 8,320 grs. 

Abstract of jalap 6,400 grs. 

Mild chloride of mercury 6,400 grs. 

Gamboge 1,600 grs. 

Powdered licorice root 640 grs. 

Water 1,260 grs. 

Mix the powders thoroughly ; add the water, and 
make a mass ; divide into 128 boluses, each of which 
is to be cut into 50 pills on the Xo. 4 machine. 

The numbering of the machines is here supposed to be an arbi- 
trary method used in the laboratory to designate the particular 
machine to which the formula was adjusted, and is not a number 
that means anything at all outside of the writer's laboratory. The 
ordinary trade designation of pill machines, as five-grain, three- 
grain, two grain, etc., is meaningless, and not even true of blue 



62 - THE PRESCRIPTION 

mass, to which these terms are supposed to apply. Now, such a 
formula would be awkward in appearance, and it would be difficult 
to either increase or diminish the size of the mass if the quantities 
were given in pounds, ounces, drams, and grains, thus : 

Take of 

Compound extract of coloeynth. . . .1 Tb., 5 ozs., 2 drs., 40 grs. 

Abstract of jalap 1 Tb., 1 oz., 2 drs., 40 grs. 

Mild chloride of mercury 1 Tb., 1 oz., 2 drs., 40 grs. 

Gamboge 3 ozs., 2 drs., 40 grs. 

Powdered licorice root 1 oz., 2 drs., 40 grs. 

Water 2 fl. oz., 5 fl. drs. 

M,ix and divide into 6,400 pills. 

It might also be convenient in extemporaneous prescriptions to 
use grains alone, discarding the drams and ounces. This would 
give us many of the advantages of the metric system, and do away 
with many of the disadvantages of the apothecaries ' weights, but, of 
course, it would be better to adopt the metric system altogether. 

Liquid Measure. 

Measures of capacity are of two kinds, measures of liquids and 
measures of dry substances. In medicine dry substances are never 
measured, but always weighed. The unit of capacity for liquids is 
the gallon, and for solids the bushel. 

The laws of the various states define how much a bushel of coal, 
or of potatoes, wheat, malt, etc., shall weigh, and except in retail 
trade the bushel measure and its subdivisions (peck, half -peck and 
quart) are not actually used as measures. 

The table for liquid measure is : 

4 gills = 1 pint. 
2 pints = 1 quart. 
4 quarts == 1 gallon. 

The signs of abbreviation are : 

Gill, gi. 

Pint, pt. 
Quart, qt. 
Gallon, gal. 

The barrel (bbl.) is thirty-one and one-half gallons, and the hogs- 
head ( lihd. ) is sixty-three gallons, but these are not fixed measures, 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 63 

but vary considerably when used for commercial purposes. The 
tierce, hogshead, pipe, butt, and tun are other terms used to desig- 
nate casks used for various kinds of liquids, but have no fixed value 
of capacity. 

Apothecaries' Liquid Measure. 

60 minims = 1 fluidram. 

8 fluidrams = 1 fluidounce. 
16 fluidounces =1 pint. 

8 pints = 1 gallon. 

The signs used in prescriptions and formulas are as follows : 

Minim, Tn_. 

Fluidram, f 3. 
Fluidounce, f 5- 
Pint, O. 

Gallon, Cong, or C. 

The minim (minimum, i, n., the smallest part), is used for 
measuring small quantities of liquids. The sign, Til, is merely the 
initial letter of the word. 

The sign for the fluidram (fluidrachma, ce, f., "the measure of a 
dram of water") is simply the sign of the dram, with the letter 
"f" (fluid) prefixed, fo. In English formulas it is often written 
"fl. dr." 

The sign for fluidounce (fluiduncia, ce, f., "the measure of an 
ounce of water") is the sign of the ounce with an "f" (fluid) pre- 
fixed. In English formulas it is often written "fl. oz. " 

The pint is not used in prescriptions, though it is sometimes 
used in formulas. The sign, 0, is an abbreviation of the Latin 
name octarius, ii, m., meaning "an eighth part," referring to the 
fact that it is the eighth part of a gallon. This measure is of 
modern origin, and was not used by the ancients. In English 
formulas it is customary to write "pt. " 

The gallon is rarely used in prescriptions or formulas. The sign 
Cong, or C. is an abbreviation of congius, ii, m., the gallon, which, 
anciently, was the eighth part of the amplwra (amplwra, ce, f., a 
pitcher or jug, from the Greek ajtK/n-^ejow, carry). The word congius 
is derived from the Latin word concha, ce, f. (Gr. Koyx°0, the mus- 
sleshell, or conch, which was used as a drinking vessel. In English 
formulas we write "gal.," or "gall." 



64 the prescription 

Linear Measure. 

The only measures of length, except metric measures, which are 
used in prescriptions are the line, inch, and foot, and occasionally 
the yard. 

Table of Linear Measure. 

12 lines — 1 inch. 

12 inches = 1 foot. 

3 feet = 1 yard. 

The signs are as follows : 

Line, "' 
Inch, " or in. 
Foot, ' or ft. 
Yard, yd. 

The line and inch are sometimes used in designating the sizes 
of plasters, etc., and the foot and yard in ordering bandages, but all 
of them are but rarely employed in prescriptions. 

Incidentally, it may be remarked, that the division of the foot 
into inches and lines (or into twelfths and one-hundred-and-forty- 
fourths) is so inconvenient, that in civil engineering, surveying, 
and for similar purposes, the foot is often divided into tenths and 
hundredths, showing here also the urgent necessity of abandon- 
ing the old and inconvenient forms, and substituting therefor an 
advanced and rational decimal system of measures. This division 
of the foot into tenths and hundredths is merely a make-shift until 
the metric system is finally adopted altogether in this country. 

Metric System. 

Necessity of an International Decimal System of Weights. 

With the advancement of civilization and its attendant progress 
in regard to commerce, and especially since rapid communication 
by railroads, steamboats, and telegraphs has almost annihilated 
distance and time, and has brought continents and nations much 
nearer to each other, so that our world is now only a very small 
globe indeed, it has become more desirable that there should be one 
cosmopolitan or international system of weights and measures, as 
well as of money, postal service, language, etc. 

This world is becoming altogether too small to make it possible 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 65 

to continue using so many different systems of money and of 
weights and measures as are now in use, and it is altogether prob- 
able that one system of each will eventually displace all others, 
and it is, therefore, of great importance to determine which one 
this is likely to be, and then to aid in its introduction. 

As already stated in previous pages, the coming international 
monetary system must be decimal, and dollars, dimes, and cents 
will probably soon be used all over the world ; so also, the system 
of weights and measures must be decimal, and the first used decimal 
system has the advantage in regard to chances of universal adop- 
tion. It is safe to say that if any nation had used for centuries 
a system employing the grain, perhaps, as follows : 

10 grains = 1 scruple, 

10 scruples = 1 dram, 

10 drams = 1 ounce, 

10 ounces = 1 pound, etc. 

then, when steamboats and locomotives brought our antipodes 
within a few days' traveling distance, and the telegraph enabled 
us to read in the morning's paper what had occurred on the other 
side of the world at noon there of the same day, such a decimal 
system might have had a fair chance of general adoption. 

But no decimal system including the grain was in use, and when 
the desirability of an international system of weights became felt, 
the only decimal system of weights and measures then known was 
adopted by one nation after another, until now but few nations 
exist which do not employ it, This system is the decimal or 
metric system. 

Professor Oscar Oldberg says : ' ' This system was not the work 
of any one mind, nor of any one nation. It was the legitimate 
offspring of the times. In its conception and development, as in its 
steadily increasing domain, no nation can claim it as its own ; but 
France had the honor of being the first to adopt it. It has con- 
tinued to spread until adopted by more than one-half of the in- 
habitants of the civilized world. It is obligatory by law in the 
following countries: Argentine Confederation, Austro-Hungary, 
Belgium, Brazil, British India, Chili, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Egypt, 
France, French Colonies, Germany, Greece, Guatemala, Italy, 
Mexico, Netherlands, Dutch Colonies, Norway, Peru, Portugal, 
Roumania, Spain, Spanish Colonies, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, 



66 THE PRESCRIPTION 

United States of Columbia, Uruguay, and Venezuela. The aggre- 
gate population of these countries is about 500,000,000. 

"The metric system is in part obligatory in Denmark and its 
colonies ; population about 2,000,000. 

"It is permissive in Great Britain, the British Colonies, and the 
United States, with an aggregate population of about 100,000,000. 

' ' The only country in which the metric system is not permitted 
for commercial transactions is Russia, with a population (includ- 
ing its dependencies) of about 90,000,000. For scientific purposes, 
the metric system is in universal use. * * * 

"The metric system is now used in the pharmacopoeias of 

Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Mexico, 

Norway, Russia, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States. In 

' the last named Pharmacopoeia, however, the troy grain is also used 

in part. 

"Most of the best works on chemistry, pharmacy, and materia 
medica in all languages now use the metric system. ' '* 

In the light of these facts, can anyone doubt which system of 
weights and measures is destined to be the successor of all others, 
and to become cosmopolitan? and must not all efforts to retard the 
consummation of this final result appear as the futile effort of 
shortsighted obstructionists who vainly attempt to stem the on- 
rushing tide of human progress and civilization? 

We may rest assured that whether we individually favor or op- 
pose the use of the metric system, its intrinsic merits, as well as 
its adventitious advantages, are such that it will continue to spread 
until it is the system of the world, by which all mankind "from 
Greenland 's icy mountains to India 's coral strand ' ' will weigh and 
measure. Our opposition may delay this, but will not prevent it. 

It is true that there are some who think that the metric system 
may progress until it is finally adopted for all purposes, except 
for the particular purpose for which they themselves use it. Thus, 
there are photographers who write in their journals in favor of 
troy weights for photographers ; or pharmacists or physicians who 
admit the superiority of the metric system of weights and measures 
for all other purposes, except for medicine and pharmacy, thinking, 
in their shortsightedness, that medicine and pharmacy can stand 
still while all the world else progresses. But no branch of human 



*Weights, Measures, and Specific Gravity, by Oscar Oldberg, Pharni. D., 1885. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 67 

knowledge or thought can stand still. The Genius of the Age 
urges it on, and it must progress with the other branches of science 
or perish. 

In pharmacy and medicine there can be no rest or cessation of 
advancement until there is one universal pharmacopoeia, with one 
universal system of weights and measures, so that a prescription 
written anywhere may be compounded alike in all the pharmacies 
of the world ; and individual physicians or pharmacists who can 
not, or will not, keep pace with the advancing strides of their 
professions, will simply be dealt with according to the fixed laws 
which result in the "survival of the fittest." 

The evidently predestined universal use of the metric system of 
weights and measures for all purposes, including medicine and 
pharmacy, makes it desirable that we should consider it carefully, 
so that we, each one of us, may be able to use it readily, and thus 
aid, rather than 'obstruct, the evident tendencies of the times. 

The Metric System. 

Several decimal systems of weights and measures have been 
proposed, but none of them ever came into use except the metric 
system. This system is so called because it is based upon the 
meter, from the Greek fiirpov, measure. 

It is immaterial what forms the unit of any system, and an 
arbitrary weight, as the grain of wheat, which gave rise to our 
grain weight, will answer as well as any other, provided it is af- 
terwards defined by law to become of fixed and absolute value. So 
the meter might originally have been an arbitrary length without 
affecting the value of the system thereby. But it was deemed 
advisable to make the meter of such a definite value that if all 
traces of these weights and measures were to be annihilated the 
meter could be replaced. 

The meter is the one-ten-millionth part of the distance from the 
earth's equator to the pole, and may, of course, be calculated again 
at any time, if necessary. The standard meter is made of platinum, 
and is, therefore, not corrodible ; it is kept in Paris, in a fire-proof 
building, and as its length varies with the temperature, it must be 
measured at 0° C. According to this standard the standard weights 
.and measures of all other countries have been prepared so that the 
meter may be the same all over the world. 



68 THE PRESCRIPTION 

From the meter, which is the unit of length, all other units, as 
of measures of surface, of cubic contents, and of weights, have 
been obtained. 

The meter is equivalent to 39.37-)- inches, or, approximately, to 
40 inches. It is the unit for measures of length; used like our 
yard. 

A square having sides of ten meters, or 100 square meters, is 
called Are, and is the unit of measures of surface, as of land. 
This term is used like our word acre. 

A cube, each of whose faces is one-tenth of a meter square (one 
cubic decimeter), is called Liter, and is the unit for measures of 
capacity. It is a little more than one quart. 

A cube, each face of which is one one-hundredth of a meter 
square, or one cubic centimeter, is equal to the thousandth part 
of a liter ; and the weight of one cubic centimeter of pure distilled 
water, weighed in vacuo, with water at its greatest density (4° C. 
or 39.2° F.) is a gram, which is the unit of weight. The cubic 
centimeter is also called a mil (plural, mils). 

The other denominations of the metric system are named by 
prefixing Greek syllables to express the upward scale, and Latin 
syllables to express the downward scale, or decimal fractions, thus : 



Greek 



Deca, from Scko., deca, ten. 
Hecto, from Uarov, hecaton, hundred. 
Kilo, from xi'Aioi, kilioi, thousand. 
Myria, from /jLvpids, myrias, ten thousand. 
Deci, from decima, ce, f., the tenth part. 
Latin ,j Centi, from centesima, ce, f., the hundredth part. 
Milli, from millesima, ce, f., the thousandth part. 

In writing any quantity, however, it is not customary to write 
the names of these different denominations, but to write them in 
the form of whole numbers and fractions, in a similar manner as 
we write dollars and cents ; we write $1.15, and not $1, 1 dime, and 
5 cents. 

Applying the prefixes to the gram, we have the following de- 
nominations : 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 69 

Pronounced. Written. 

Myriagram, or 10 kilos , 10,000. grams, or 10 kilos. 

Kilogram, or kilo 1,000. grams, or 1 kilo. 

Hectogram 100. grams. 

Decagram 10. grams. 

Gram 1. gram. 

Decigram 0.1 gram. 

Centigram 0.01 gram. 

Milligram 0.001 gram. 

Different opinions have been held in regard to the proper method 
of spelling the word "gram," many preferring "gramme" to the 
ordinary English method of spelling it, on the ground that there is 
not sufficient difference between gram and grain. But, as the word 
is not spelled in full in prescriptions, and the abbreviation Gm., 
with a capital G and a heavy line underneath, is generally used, 
together with Arabic numerals, it probably makes little difference 
how the word is spelled. If anyone has not formed a habit of 
writing it in either way it might, perhaps, be advisable to write 
"gramme," as long as the old system of grains is still in use. 

It is not customary in this country to use the ascending terms, 
except the kilogram. We prefer to say "one hundred grams" 
rather than "one hectogram." The word kilogram is used simi- 
larly as the term pound is ordinarily employed. It is the unit for 
weighing commercial quantities of heavier goods, which are sold 
by weight. Crude drugs are sold by the kilogram (abbreviated to 
"kilo"). A bale of cinchona, for instance, contains from sixty 
to one hundred "kilos," or, approximately, twice as many pounds, 
the kilo being equal to 2.20+ avoirdupois pounds. 

The above prefixes are used with other metric terms as well ; 
with the meter, for example, we have myriameter, kilometer (used 
as a unit as we ordinarily use the mile), hectometer, decameter, 
meter, decimeter, centimeter, and millimeter. 

In expressing quantities of weight or measure in prescriptions, 
we use only the gram and the cubic centimeter as units, and ex- 
press all quantities, either as whole numbers to express one or 
more than one unit of each kind, or as fractions to express quan- 
tities less than one unit of a kind. When it is necessary to ex- 
press linear measures in prescriptions, the meter and its subdivi- 
sions are used. 



70 THE PRESCRIPTION 

The following abbreviations are occasionally employed: 

Meter, M. or m. 

Decimeter, Dm. or dm. 

Centimeter, Cm. or cm. 

Millimeter, Mm. or mm. 

In microscopical measurements the one-thousandth part of a 
millimeter is generally used as the unit of measurements, and is 
called micro-millimeter or micron, for which, as an abbreviation, 
the Greek letter m is used, thus : /*. 

The following abbreviations for weights have been used in pre- 
scriptions : 

Gram, G., Chn., or Gm. 

Decigram, Dg. or dgm. 
Centigram, Cg. or cgm. 
Milligram, M g. or mgm. 

The abbreviations for the subdivisions of the gram are, however, 
rarely employed, and errors are less likely to occur if we discard 
them altogether and express these quantities as fractions of the 
gram : or, if we use these terms, we should write them out in full. 

Of liquid measures only the cubic centimeter is used in prescrip- 
tions ; abbreviated C.c. In the British and United States pharma- 
copoeias the cubic centimeter which is the one-thousandth part of 
a liter, or milli-liter, is called a "mil." In formulas for larger 
quantities the liter is sometimes used. The liter is written L. 

In writing any quantity in metric terms in a prescription, we 
write the name of the quantity, preceded by the number in Arabic 
characters, as in the following example: 

R Morphinae sulphatis, 0.10 Gm. 

Quininse sulphatis, 2.50 Gm. 

Acidi sulphurici diluti, q. s. 

Tincturae cardamomi eompositas, 10.00 C.c. 

Syrupi sacchari, 25.00 C.c. 

Aquae purae, 165.00 C.c. 

Misce et signa: Tablespoonful three times a day. 

•When less than one gram or one cubic centimeter is taken the 
decimal point is emphasized by placing a zero in the unit place, as 
above. To avoid all errors from any misplaced or omitted decimal 
point, it has been suggested to use a decimal line, thus: 



t>0 


hi) 


bn 




Q 


O 


§ 







5 






? 









5 










WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 71 

U Opii pulveris, 0125 Gm. 

Quininae sulphatis, 5| 00 Gm. 
Extracti gentians, q. s. 
Fiat massa et divide in pilulas XXX. 
S. : One pill night and morning. 

Still another plan suggested is to rule the prescription blanks 
as for dollars and cents, only that we must have four spaces instead 
of two for the fractions, and that the denominations of the frac- 
tions are printed above the columns as in the following example : 

Grams 

R Strychnines sulphatis, 

Extracti belladonnas, 

Extracti colocynthidis compositi, 7 

Misce et divide in pilulas L. 

Signa : One pill at bedtime. 

In the above examples the abbreviation Gm. for gram can not be 
mistaken for the abbreviation gr. for grains, because the latter is 
always written first with a small g, and with the number follow- 
ing in Roman numerals. 

In European countries it is customary in dispensing to weigh 
liquids as well as solids, and only the gram and its fractions are 
used. This is so thoroughly understood that no abbreviation for 
the gram is necessary at all and only numbers are written. 

R Magnesii sulphatis, 25. 

Extracti sennas fluidi, 10. 

Syrupi zingiberis, 15. 

Aqua?, q. s. ad, 200. 

Misce. Signa : Tablespoonf ul every two hours. 

If we could have the general agreement in this country that 
all solids are to be dispensed by weight and all liquids by measure, 
this last plan would be the plainest, and, therefore, best. We 
would read grams for solids and cubic centimeters for liquids and 
dispense accordingly. 

When anyone wishes to adopt the metric system for use in pre- 
scribing, he should attempt to think in metric terms as soon as 
possible, because a mere transposition of the quantities into metric 
terms after having been thought and calculated in the old apothe- 
caries' terms is not a proper use of the newer and better system, 
any more than a man can be said to write in the English language 



72 THE PRESCRIPTION 

who first writes an article in a foreign language, and then la- 
boriously translates into English. His English composition will 
not only be awkward in style, but it will betray its origin in its 
idiomatic construction, and will merely be German, French, etc., 
as the case may be, clothed in English garb. So, also, we often see 
metric prescriptions in different medical works which show un- 
mistakable signs of having been originally constructed with grains, 
drams, and ounces. 

There are different, methods of acquiring the habit of thinking 
in metric terms, some of which appear to involve much unneces- 
sary labor, and retard, rather than facilitate, the introduction of 
the decimal system. We may safely assert that any plan which 
gives rules for the exact conversion of apothecaries' weights into 
grams will not succeed in teaching anyone to use the metric system 
properly, and will make the acquisition of an ability to write 
metric prescriptions fluently appear as a formidable undertaking, 
when, in reality, it is exceedingly simple and easy. 

Rules for converting grains into grams, or vice versa, with mathe- 
matical exactness are superfluous under all ordinary circumstances, 
for when exactness is really desirable it can be better secured by 
referring to tables of equivalent quantities, and when it is not 
necessary, these rules are too cumbersome and tedious for practi- 
cal use. 

If rules for conversion are used at all, they should be so simple 
that they can be used mentally and instantly. 

The easiest and quickest method probably is to simply memorize 
the equivalent values of a number of the more familiar quantities, 
and then from them calculate other quantities that we may meet 
with. We commence with a small list, and go over it until all 
proportions are perfectly fixed in the memory. Then, we may 
enlarge the table and memorize this also. For example, we mem- 
orize some such tables as the following : 

Equivalents of Linear Measure. 

1 line = about 2 millimeters, or 0.002 meters. 

1 inch = about 25 millimeters, or 0.025 meters. 

1 foot = about 30 centimeters, or 0.30 meters. 

1 yard = about 90 centimeters, or 0.90 meters. 

To realize this relationship, it will be well to carefully compare 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 



73 



the scale of one decimeter and its subdivisions with the scale of 
four inches and its subdivisions in the accompanying figure. 



ENGLISH 
1. 2 

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 


INCHES. 

3 4 

i i -i 1 i i i 1 i i i 1 i i i 








lllllllll 


lllllllll lllllllll III h mum 


iniiiiii 


mi mil 


: IN lllllllll Mil Mil 






2 
1 DE 


3 

CIMETI 


+ S 6 
Ml = 10 CENTIMETERS = 


7 3 9 
= 100 MILLIMETERS. 


1 
10 





Next we try to realize and memorize measures of capacity. The 
scale representing one decimeter in the above figure serves to con- 
struct a measure of capacity. A cubic decimeter is one liter, as 
already explained. 

Equivalents of Fluid Measure. 

15 minims = about 1 cubic centimeter. 
1 fluidram = about 4 cubic centimeters. 
1 fluidounce — about 30 cubic centimeters. 
1 pint = about 0.5 liter, or 500 cubic centimeters. 

1 quart = about 1 liter, or 1,000 cubic centimeters. 

Equivalents of Weight. 

1 grain = about 0.06 gram, or 6 centigrams. 

15 grains = about 1 gram. 

1 dram = about 4 grams. 

1 troy ounce — about 30 grams. 

For use in learning to construct a metric prescription, it be- 
comes necessary to adopt some easy rules for conversion from 
apothecaries' to metric weights. The simplest method is as fel- 
lows : 

Multiply ounces by 30 to get the number of grams. Multiply 
drams by 4 to get the number of grams. When there are less than 
60 grains divide by 15 to ascertain the number of grams. If there 
is a remainder, or if the number of grains is less than 16, we may 
reduce to fractions of a gram, as follows: 

Assume the gram (written 1.00 Gm.) to be equal to 15 or 16 
grains. To convert any number of grains less than 16 into centi- 
grams, think what fraction that number is of 15 or 16, as may be 
most convenient, and then take that fractional part of 1.00 gram 



74 



THE PRESCRIPTION 



to express the metric equivalent, ignoring fractions beyond the 
second decimal place. 

The following will make this cleat-: 



1 grain 

2 grains 

3 grains 

4 grains 

5 grains 

6 grains 

8 grains 

9 grains 
10 grains 
12 grains 



■-Ma of 

:% Of 

:% Of 

:% Of 

:% Of 

--% Of 

: y 2 of 

■■% of 

:% Of 

Of 



= % 



16 grains 

16 grains 

15 grains 

16 grains 
15 grains 

15 grains 

16 grains 
15 grains 

15 grains 

16 grains 



%e of 
% of 
% of 
% of 

y 3 of 

% of 

% of 

% of 

% of 

% of 



1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 
1.00 



gram: 
gram: 
gram : 
gram : 
gram: 
gram: 
gram: 
gram: 
gram: 
gram: 



:0.06 
:0.12 
:0.20 
:0.25 
:0.33 
:0.40 
: 0.50 
:0.60 
:0.66 
:0.75 



gram, 
gram, 
gram, 
gram, 
gram, 
gram, 
gram, 
gram, 
gram. 
Gram. 



Or we may remember that a grain equals 0.06 gram, and multi- 
ply this by the total number of grains. For instance 20 grains= 
20x0.06 gram, or 1.20 grams; 35 grains=35 x 0.06 gram, or 2.10 
grams. 

In some parts of the country the custom still prevails of using 
the "bit" in stating money values — eight bits making a dollar, 
and the bit being, therefore, I23/2 cents, written 0.12y 2 dollars; 
"two bits," "four bits," and "six bits" are $0.25, $0.50, and 
$0.75 respectively. The uneven numbers of bits are rarely em- 
ployed, but three bits would be $0.37y^, five bits $0.62^, and 
seven bits $0.87y 2 . To anyone familiar with these "bits," the con- 
version of grains to grams offers no difficulty. Two grains equals 
0.123>2, or 0.125 grams, which fraction is written like one bit. 
Therefore, divide the number of grains by 2, and write the frac- 
tion of a dollar for that number of bits. For instance, to convert 
12 grains: 12-^-2 = 6; six bits is $0.75; omit the dollar sign and 
substitute the gram sign and it is done; to convert 9 grains; 9-=-2 = 
4/^2 ; 414 bits is $0.56 ; therefore 0.56 grams. Or, when the number 
of grains is uneven, we may divide by 2, ignoring the fraction, 
taking the value of that number of bits and adding 6 cents for the 
odd grain; to convert 5 grains: 5-^-2=2; "two bits" is $0.25, to 
which we add 6 cents, which makes $0.31 ; therefore 0.31 gram, or, 
for appearance's sake, 0.30 gram. 

While the above equivalents and rules for the conversion of 
apothecaries ' weights into metric quantities are only approximately 
correct, they are sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes; 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 75 

and as they can be used mentally, they may serve a valuable pur- 
pose during the transition period, while the physician still thinks 
in the old terms, but writes in the new. A short time of practice, 
however, will soon enable him to use the metric terms without any 
mental reference to grains. When we use metric terms we should 
try to use whole or fractional numbers that are multiples of five 
or ten as far as possible, partly because the decimal prescription 
looks better when thus written, and partly because the weights 
are made according to this plan and the graduates are engraved 
with gradations of five and ten cubic centimeters. Besides, the 
bottles made for metric prescriptions contain 10, 25, 50, 75, 100, 
150, 200, 250, etc., cubic centimeters, and these bottles should be 
filled just as it is the aim of the physician to prescribe a quantity 
of fluid that may about fill the i/2> 1> 2, 4, and 6-ounce vials. It 
does not look any better to dispense 180 cubic centimeters in a 
200 cubic centimeter vial than to dispense 5 fluidounces in a 6- 
ounce vial. 

Suppose, then, that we are beginners in the use of the metric 
system, and must still construct our prescriptions according to the 
old plan, or with quantities in apothecaries' weights, and that we 
wish to prescribe the following: 

R Copaiba;, f§i. 

Acacias pulv., 

Aquas, aa q. s. ut ft. emuls. fjjv. 
Addc 

Spir. lavandul. comp., f3ii. 

Syr. tolntan., f*i. 

M. S.: Tablespoonful every three hours. 

We write out the whole of the formula, only omitting the quanti- 
ties, thus : 

R Copaibas, 

Acacias pulv., 

Aquas, aa q. s. ut ft. emuls. 
Adde 

Spir. lavandul. comp., 
Syr. tolutan., 

M. S.: Tablespoonful every three hours. 

The emulsion we wish to prescribe, as above, is to measure about 
6 fluidounces ; 6 fluidounces, however, are equal to about 6 x 30, or 
180 cubic centimeters. The next size of metric bottle is one of 200 



76 THE PRESCRIPTION 

cubic centimeter capacity, and we determine to fill that. One- 
sixth of the emulsion is to be copaiba ; one-sixth of 200 cubic centi- 
meters is 33 cubic centimeters, but, as already explained, we prefer 
a multiple of 5, and, therefore, write 35 cubic centimeters. This is 
to be mixed with acacia and water to make 5 fluidounces of emul- 
sion ; 5 x 30 cubic centimeters = 150 cubic centimeters. To this 
is to be added 2 fluidrams of compound spirit of lavender ; 2 x 4 
cubic centimeters = 8 cubic centimeters, but as the whole mixture 
is somewhat increased, we increase the quantity of the spirit to an 
even decimal number — 10 cubic centimeters. This added to the 
150 cubic centimeters of emulsion is 160 cubic centimeters, and to 
make the desired 200 cubic centimeters we need 40 cubic centi- 
meters, which is the measure we take of the syrup. This is, of 
course, a mental calculation, and requires scarcely as much time 
as it takes to read it, and then we write down the quantities after 
the names of the ingredients. Our prescription will then appear 
as follows : 

R Copaibse, 35 C.c. 

Acacias pulv., 

Aquae, aa q. s. ut ft. emuls. 150 C.c. 
Adde 

Spir. lavandul. comp., 10 C.e. 

Syr. tolutan., 40 C.c. 

M. S.: Tablespoonful every three hours. 

We carefully look this over to see that we have, made no error, 
and then the prescription is done. In a few weeks we will be- 
come so familiar with metric terms that we can write the prescrip- 
tion without first thinking it out in apothecaries' weights and 
measures, although, for safety's sake, we may prefer for a time to 
verify our metric prescriptions by mentally transposing to the old 
and more familiar quantities. 

When once we have acquired the ability to use the metric sys- 
tem, we can not help but become charmed with its scientific sim- 
plicity and beauty, and will not desire to return to the use of the 
old system. Those who are best and alone able to judge regarding 
the comparative merits of the two systems — namely, those who 
have used and thought in both systems — are unanimous in their 
preference for the decimal metric system. The opposition to the 
metric system comes from those who either have never studied the 



"WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 77 

system at all, owing to prejudice or laziness to devote a little time 
and trouble, and who are, therefore, really incompetent to form 
any opinion at all on the subject, and ought to have the good grace 
to acknowledge this, or from those who have devoted some time to 
the study of the system, but have never acquired the ability to think 
in this system. To the latter class it then necessarily appears as a 
cumbersome system, and as one that involves chances for errors 
that would be avoided by the use of grain weights. 

Some authors have attempted to include metric prescriptions in 
their books by simply changing the quantities of the old formulas 
to the metric equivalents, or even by merely adding them in a paral- 
lel column to the right. This is a striking demonstration of "how 
not to do it." Such formulas are not metric; they are not in 
metric terms that would be used by one who thinks in this system, 
and when they are for liquids, they are not calculated to fill metric 
vials but old style vials. 

Note that in the United States Pharmacopoeia for small doses the 
decimal point is used to mark off milligrams, even when the dose 
is for centigrams ; thus : 

Extract of Opium; dose: 0.030 gm. = 30 milligrams (1/2 grain) ; 
and that the decimal point is never used in the United States 
Pharmacopoeia, except after the unit place for the whole gram. 

It should, therefore, be the aim as soon as possible to learn the 
metric doses of remedies and to think in metric terms, in order 
that the system may be used in a proper manner in prescribing, 
and it will prove profitable to devote an hour a day for a week or 
two to taking the prescriptions on a druggist's file and changing 
them to metric prescriptions, as above explained. 

As it is the custom in this country to give medicines to the 
patient in measured doses (teaspoonful, etc.), the calculations of 
doses and of total quantities to be dispensed are based on the 
measures of the liquid ingredients, and not on their weights. To 
prescribe and dispense by weight would make it necessary for the 
physician to remember the specific gravity of every fluid extract, 
tincture, solution, syrup, etc., and to calculate the weight of each 
such ingredient, so that he may obtain the desired total volume of 
medicine. This involves too much trouble and too many chances 
for errors in prescribing, so that it is to be hoped that both the 



78 



THE PRESCRIPTION 



pharmaceutical and medical professions will insist on prescribing 
and dispensing solids by weight and liquids by measure. 

Under certain circumstances it may be desirable to use exact 
equivalents, and then it may be remembered that the gram equals 
15.432+ grains. This number is easily memorized by writing the 
figures in descending order, beginning with 5, then 4, 3, 2, and 
when 1 is reached writing this before the 5 instead of after the 2, 
and then placing the decimal point after the 5. 

The second column of the following table gives exact metric 
equivalents for the apothecaries' weights in the first column: 

Conversion of Apothecaries' Weight to Metric Weight. 



Apothecaries' Metric 

weight. weight. 

% g' rain °- 001 

%o " 0.002 

y, " 0.003 

i/io " 0.006 

y 8 " 0.008 

% " 0.011 

% " 0.013 

% " 0.016 

y 3 " 0.021 

% " 0.032 

% " 0.043 

% " 0.048 

1 " 0.065 

2 grains 0.13 

3 " 0.19 

4 " 0.26 

5 " 0.32 

6 " 0.39 

7 " 0.45 

8 " 0.52 

9 " 0.58 

10 " (9ss) 0.65 

12 " 0.78 

14 " 0.91 

15 " 0.97 

16 " 1.04 

18 " 1.17 

20 " (3i) 1.30 

24 " 1.53 

30 " (3ss) 1.94 

36 " 2.33 

40 " (Sii) 2.59 

48 " 3.11 

50 " (9iiss) 3.24 

60 " (3i) 3.89 



Apothecaries ' 
weight. 



Metric 
weight. 



80 grains 
90 

100 " 

120 " 

150 " 

160 ' 

180 " 

200 " , 

240 " 

5 drams 

51/2 

6 

7 



10 " 

12 " 

14 " 

16 " 

18 " 

20 '.' 

3 ounces 

3% " 

4 

4% 

5 " 

51/2 " 

6 

6% " 

7 

8 " 

9 " 

10 " 

11 " 

12 " 



3iv) 

3iss) 

3v) 

3ii) 

3iiss) 

iiii) ...... 

3ss) 

3v) 

3vss) 

3vi) 

3vii) 

S) 

3ix) 

3x) 

§iss) 

3xiv) " 

Si) 

3xviii) 

§iiss) . .-. . . 

Sii) 

Jiiiss) . . . . . 

Sv) 

§ivss) 

Sv) 

3vss) 

Svi) 

•Sviss) . . . . . 

Svii) 

Sviii) , 

Six) 

3x) 

Exi) 

Sxii or lb i) . 



. 5.18 
. 5.83 
. 6.48 
. 7.77 
. 9.72 
. 10.36 
. 11.66 
. 12.96 
. 15.53 
. 19.44 
. 21.39 
. 23.33 
. 27.22 
. 31.10 
. 34.99 
. 38.88 
. 46.66 
. 54.43 
. 62.21 
. 69.98 
. 77.76 
. 93.31 
.108.86 
.124.42 
.139.97 
.155.62 
.171.07 
.186.62 
.202.18 
.217.73 
.248.83 
.279.94 
.311.04 
.342.14 
.373.25 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 



79 



In the second column of the following table are given approx- 
imate equivalents in grains for the metric quantities of the first 
column; the third column is in drams and apothecaries' ounces: 

Conversion of Grams to Apothecaries' Weight. 



Metric 
weight. 



Apothecaries ' 
weight. 



0.001 gm 

0.002 

0.003 

0.004 

0.005 

0.006 

0.008 

0.01 

0.02 

0.03 

0.04 

0.06 

0.08 

0.10 

0.15 

0.20 

0.25 

0.40 

0.50 

0.75 

1.00 

1.50 

2.00 

2.50 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 



Van 



■ Vw 

■ % 

• % 

■ % 

• y 2 

■ % 
. 1 

• 1% g 

• 1% 

• 2% 
. 3 
. 4 
. 6 
. 8 
. 12 
. 16 

23 
. 31 
. 38 
. 46 
. 62 
. 77' 
. 92 
.108 
.123 
.139 
.154 
.170 
.185 
.200 
.216 
.232 
.247 
.262 



y 2 dr. 

1 dr. 
lV 2 drs. 



2 drs. 
2% drs." 



3 drs. 
31/2 drs. 

4 drs. 



Metric 
weight. 



Apothecaries ' 
weight. 



18 gms. 
19 



20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

35 

40 

45 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

125 

150 

175 

200 

225 

250 

275 

300 

325 

350 

375 

400 

425 

450 

475 

500 

1000 



278 grs. 
293 " 



.. 309 

.. 324 
.. 340 
. . 355 

.. 370 
.. 386 
.. 401 
.. 417 
.. 432 
.. 448 
.. 463 
.. 540 
.. 617 
.. 694 
.. 772 
. . 927 
..1,080 
..1,235 
..1,389 
..1,543 
..1,929 
..2,315 
..2,701 
..3,086 
..3,472 
..3,858 
. .4,244 
..4,630 
..5,015 
..5,401 
..5,787 
..6,173 
..6,559 
. .6,944 
..7,330 
..7,716 
. 15,432 





5 


drs. 




6 


drs. 


6y 2 drs. 


7 


drs. 


7% 


drs. 


9 


drs. 



11% drs. 
13 " 

i5y 3 " 

18 " 

201/2 " 

23 " 

25y 2 " 

4 ozs. 
38 y 2 drs. 
45 " 
50 " 
58 " 

8 ozs. 
70y 2 drs. 
77 " 
83y 2 " 
90 " 

12 ozs. 

13 " 

i3y 2 " 
i4y 2 " 

15 " 

16 " 
32 " 



In all the above rules and tables we may substitute respectively 
cubic centimeter or mil for gram, minim for grain, fluidram for 
dram, and fluidounce for ounce, when the quantities refer to fluids. 
Incidentally it may be mentioned that Professor Oscar Oldberg pro- 



80 THE PRESCRIPTION 

posed the word "fluigram" instead of cubic centimeter, as being 
simpler and showing the relation to the gram more readily. On the 
other hand, the term cubic centimeter conveys a clear idea of the 
actual volume of the liquid. The term "fluigram" has not been 
generally accepted ; the term mil has come into general use instead. 

Reference has frequently been made in journals to the im- 
proper use of the decimal point in the metric prescriptions. We 
may avoid chances for error and misunderstanding by observing 
the following rule: 

In prescriptions never use the decimal point except to designate 
the gram and its decimal fractions, as any other use is liable to 
lead to mistakes. 

It is unsafe, for instance, to write "0.2 centigram," because 
many readers accustomed to using the metric system, would be apt 
to overlook the word centigram and read the above as "0.2 gram," 
which it would be if the figures stood alone without any designa- 
tion. The above should be written ' ' 0.002 gram, " or " 0.002 Gm, ' ' 
or "2 milligrams." (See usage in U. S. P.) 

It is perfectly proper to use whole numbers to express deci- 
grams, centigrams, or milligrams, in which case the denomina- 
tion should be written out in full. Fractions of these values should 
be expressed in prescriptions in common fractions, and not in 
decimal fractions ; thus : " J / 2 milligram, ' ' and not ' ' 0.5 milligram ; ' ' 
"14 centigram," or ii 2 1 / 2 milligram," and not "0.25 centigram." 

It is true that this use of the decimal point is not insisted upon 
by all writers on the metric system, but in the writer's opinion it 
should be so insisted upon in the interest of safety. 

The pharmacist will find little difficulty in using the metric sys- 
tem, if he will provide himself with a set of metric weights and 
measures, which can be obtained for a very few dollars. 

It is just as easy to place a gram-weight on one pan of a scale 
as it is to place a scruple- weight there, if you have it; or to fill a 
graduate to a line marked ' ' 25 cubic centimeters, " as to fill it to a 
line marked' "1 fluidounce. " 

A pharmacist might as well try to substitute shots of various 
sizes for his grain weights, calculating from the number of grains 
in the prescription how many shots will be equivalent, as to 
calculate how many grains, drams, or ounces are equivalent to a 
certain prescribed metric quantity. Not only does the pharmacist 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 81 

who tries to save the trifling amount necessary to properly qualify 
him to dispense metric prescriptions take numerous chances of er- 
ror, but he loses much valuable time, and ' ' time is money. ' ' Sup- 
pose that a pharmacist has only three metric prescriptions a week, 
and that each prescription averages four ingredients. He will 
have to calculate equivalents 624 times a year, and at the rate of 
one minute only to calculate and verify, he spends a full working 
day each year in this unprofitable occupation, and incurs 624 
chances of an error which may ruin his business, and all to save 
less than $5. If he has more prescriptions, say, two a day, he will 
devote full four days per year, and incur nearly 3,000 chances 
of error in the same time to save the same paltry sum. 

Every pharmacist should have the necessary metric weights and 
measures before he considers himself perfectly equipped for his 
profession. 

"Parts" in Formulas. 

"Parts" in the Pharmacopoeia means the proportion to be used 
of the different ingredients mentioned in the formula. When any- 
one is accustomed to the use of "parts" he will find them much 
easier for calculating the quantities required of each ingredient 
to make a certain total quantity of product. An example will 
make this clear : 

The formula for pulvis ghjci/rrliizce compositus is as follows: 

Take of 

Senna, No. 60 powder 18 parts. 

G-lycyrrhiza, No. 60 powder 16 parts. 

Fennel, No. 60 powder 8 parts. 

Washed sulphur 8 parts. 

Sugar, fine powder 50 parts. 

To make 100 parts 

Mix thoroughly. 

All "parts" are by weight, and we may assume each part to 
mean any definite quantity that Ave desire. If we assume each 
part to be 1 dram, then we take of the different ingredients, 18, 
16, 8, 8, and 50 drams respectively; if we assume each part to be 
1 grain, 1 ounce, or 1 pound, we take 18, 16, 8, 8, and 50 grains, 
ounces, or pounds respectively, as the case may be. Whatever 
weight we assume a part to be, we take 18, 16, 8, 8, and 50 times 



82 THE PRESCRIPTION 

as much of each ingredient, according to its proportion, and the 
total will, of course, weigh just 100 times as much as the single 
part. 

If we want to make a definite quantity, say 1 pound, of the above 
preparation, we divide the total weight of 1 pound by 100 to 
ascertain the weight of 1 part. One pound is 7,000 grains, which, 
divided by 100, will fix each part at 70 grains. Multiplying 70 
grains by 18, 16, 8, 8, and 50 respectively, we have our formula as 
follows : 

Take of 

Senna, No. 60 powder 1,260 grs. 

Glycyrrhiza, No. 60 powder 1,120 grs. 

Fennel, No. 60 -powder 560 grs. 

Washed sulphur 560 grs. 

Sugar, fine powder .' 3,500 grs. 

Total 7,000 grs. 

We verity our calculation by adding, when we see that the total 
is 7,000 grains, or 1 pound. 

Incidentally these formulas have the advantage of showing the 
percentage of any ingredient at a glance, at least in those formulas 
in which the total product is either 100 or 1,000, and it is easily 
calculated when it is 200, or any other number divisible by 100. 
In the preparation used as an example we have 18 per cent senna, 
16 per cent glycyrrhiza, 8 per cent fennel, etc. 

It will be observed that it is much easier to use the formulas of 
the Pharmacopoeia with metric weights, and the metric system is, 
therefore, rapidly increasing in popularity. 

Or the pharmacist may obtain a set of Troemner's weights, 
ranging from 1,000 grains down— 1,000, 500, 200, 200, 100, 50, 20, 
20, 10, 5, 2, 2, 1, and fractions. By having in addition a lot of 
1,000-grain weights, which each may cast for himself in solder 
metal, we can work much better and avoid the useless task of re- 
ducing the quantities in the above formula into pounds, ounces, 
drams, and grains, as we would have to do if we had these weights. 

In using "parts," we must remember that they are always by 
weight, whether the material is solid or liquid, unless the contrary 
is especially mentioned. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 83 

A formula may be written in ' ' parts by measure, " or " parts by 
volume," when all ingredients are liquid. 

"Per Cent" Formulas. 

Quite frequently a pharmacist is called upon to dispense "per 
cent" solutions or preparations; for instance, 4-per-cent solution 
of cocaine, 2-per-cent solution of corrosive sublimate, etc. 

The term "per cent," or " per centum," means "per hundred," 
and a 2-per-cent solution is, therefore, a solution, 100 parts of 
which contains 2 parts of the proper ingredient. 

These formulas are compounded by weight. 

Suppose we have a call for 1 pint of 5-per-cent solution of car- 
bolic acid in water. This is often written in the form of ' ' propor- 
tions" in mathematics, thus: 

R Solutionis acidi carboliei, 5:100, Oj. 
Signa: For external use. 

Or it may be written : 

IJ Solutionis acidi carboliei, 5 per cent, Oj. 
Signa: For external use. 

When no solvent is mentioned, water is understood. 

To prepare this, we first find the value of 1 per- cent of a pint. 
One pint of water, at ordinary temperatures, weighs, in round 
numbers, 7,300 grains. The % o part of 7,300 grains equals 73 
grains, and 5 per cent is five times 73 grains, or 365 grains. Tare 
the bottle, and weigh into it 365 grains of carbolic acid, and then 
add enough water to make the total weight 7,300 grains. 

It is especially in calculating "percentage" preparations that 
we will find the metric system exceedingly convenient. 

To compound, for example: 

R Solutionis hydrargyri bichloridi, 2%, 1 liter. 
M. S.: For external use. 

"We figure thus : One liter equals 1,000 cubic centimeters, or 
weighs 1,000 grams, of which 10 grams is 1 per cent and 2 per 
cent is, therefore, 20 grams. We take, therefore, 20 grams of 
bichloride of mercury and the balance (980 grams) of water to 
make the total of 1,000 grams of solution. It is true that this will 



84 THE PRESCRIPTION 

not be accurately 1 liter, as we ignore the fact that 20 grams of 
the bichloride do not occupy the volume of 20 cubic centimeters 
when in solution, but it is accurate enough for practical purposes. 
It would be better to prescribe such solutions by weight rather 
than by measure. When all ingredients are liquids, they are 
sometimes prescribed "by volume," but "by weight" is always 
understood when the contrary is not distinctly specified. When 
exact quantities by volume must be made, the pharmacist's knowl- 
edge of mathematics should enable him to make allowance for dif- 
ferences in specific gravities, or he may make a little more of 
the solution than is prescribed, and then measure off the exact 
quantity. This is also necessary when large quantities of salts 
are prescribed in solution, as, for instance, 50-per cent solutions of 
epsom salt, etc. 

Formulas by Proportions. 

Often these solutions, etc., are prescribed by proportion instead 
of by per cent, thus : 

Solutio potassii chloratis, 1:20. 

This means that % is to be chlorate of potassium and 1 % water. 
The methods of calculating are, of course, the same as in per cent 
preparations. 

Approximate Measures. 

It is customary to administer liquid medicines to the patient in 
certain domestic measures, which, however, are not exact, but only 
approximate equivalents of the liquid measures employed in com- 
pounding and dispensing. 

The following table includes the most useful of these approxi- 
mate measures. In the first column the domestic name of the 
measure is given; in the second column, the equivalents in apothe- 
caries' liquid measure; and in the third column, the equivalents in 
metric terms. 

It will be noticed that the second and third columns do not al- 
ways correspond, some of the metric terms being more than those 
of apothecaries' liquid measure. This is owing to the fact that the 
teaspoonful is more nearly eighty minims than sixty minims, or 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 85 

one fluidram, and so with the other approximate measures. The 
metric equivalents are, therefore, more nearly correct than the 
others. 

Table of Approximate Measures. 

A teacupful =4 fluidounces = 150 cubic centimeters. 

A wineglassful = 2 fluidounces = 60 cubic centimeters. 

A tablespoonful = % fluidouncc = 20 cubic centimeters. 

A dessertspoonful = 2 fluidrams = 10 cubic centimeters. 

A teaspoonful = 1 fluidram = 5 cubic centimeters. 

'On account of the inaccuracy of the spoons in general use, the ap- 
proximate measures should be discarded altogether, and accurate 
medicine glasses or graduated spoons be used instead. These medi- 
cine glasses may be had of various forms and definitely graduated 
so that the physician can have the medicine as accurately dosed out 
to the patient as it is measured off by the pharmacist when com- 
pounding, and the patient will, therefore, get exactly the dose 
which was intended for him. When a spoonful is ordered to be 
taken the patient seldom gets the full dose intended for him, be- 
cause the attendant will not quite fill the spoon for fear of spill- 
ing the medicine over the bedclothes. This is especially the case 
when the patient is a child, because the latter will often struggle 
desperately to avoid taking the medicine. If no medicine glass is 
in the house, and the spoon must be used as a measure, the at- 
tendant should be instructed to hold the spoon over a wine-glass, 
fill it to the brim, and then pour the medicine into the wine- 
glass, from which it may be given to the patient without risk of 
spilling. 

The "drop" (gutta, ce, f.) is occasionally used as an approxi- 
mate measure, but is so uncertain and variable in size that it should 
be discarded as much as possible. It may vary in size from % to 
iy 2 minims, depending on the viscidity, or fluidity, of the liquid 
and the shape of the lip from which it is dropped ; so that not only 
drops of different liquids have different sizes, but also drops of 
the same liquid vary according to circumstances. 

The drop falling from the thin lip of some vial will be much 
smaller than the drop of the same liquid from the thick lips of a 
shelf-bottle. 



86 THE PRESCRIPTION 

For instance : 

1 fluidram of alcohol =118 — 143 drops. 

1 fluidram of water = 45 — 64 drops. 

1 fluidram of ether = 150 — 200 drops. 

1 fluidram of creosote =90 — 120 drops. 

1 fluidram of glycerin =53 — 135 drops.. 

1 fluidram of chloroform =180 — 276 drops. 

1 fluidram of tincture of chloride of iron = 106 — 151 drops. 

1 fluidram of tincture of opium = 106 1 — 147 drops. 

1 fluidram of croton oil = 70 — 92 drops. 

' ' Drop-machines ' ' are made and sold, but they do not offer much 
advantage, except that of convenience, for the size of the drop varies 
as much when dropped from these "machines" as when dropped 
from any other vessels. 

The viscidity of a liquid has, of course, a great influence on the 
size of the drop, and the viscid mucilage or oil will yield larger 
drops than the less cohesive alcohol, chloroform, or ether. The 
above table serves to show, however, to what extent drops of the 
same preparation may vary. The drop should, therefore, not be 
used in a prescription except when the quantity desired is so small 
or so viscid that it can not be measured in the minim measure ; as, 
croton oil, creasote, or some of the volatile oils. 

The spoon (cochlear, aris, n., or cochleare, is, n., from cochlea, ce, 
f., a shell, a snail-shell) varies in size, and compound words are 
used in English to express the various sizes, while adjectives are 
used in Latin for the same purpose. 

The teaspoon (cochlear e parvum, small spoon) may be made of 
pewter, as used among the poor, when it often holds less than 60 
minims. Silver and silver-plated teaspoons contain more nearly 80 
minims. By careful pouring the teaspoon may be heaped full so 
as to contain more than 2 fluidrams. 

The dessertspoon (cochleare medium) is rarely employed, and by 
the poor is generally designated as a "child's spoon" (Kinder- 
lceffel,G.). 

The tablespoon (cochleare magnum, large spoon) also varies in 
size with the material from which it is made. The pewter and 
Britannia ware spoons are thick and hold less than the silver or 
plated spoons. 

If, therefore, spoons are to be used in administering the medi- 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 87 

cine the physician should ask to see the kind of spoons in the house, 
so that he may adjust his prescription accordingly. 

Solids are sometimes dispensed by approximate measure. "A 
handful" (manipulus, i, m.) varies with the substance used, thus: 

A handful of barley seed = 80 grams. 
A handful of flaxseed • = 50 grams. 
A handful of flax meal = 150 grams. 

The ' ' pinch, ' ' or as much as can be held in a grasp of the thumb 
and first two fingers, is also used. For example, a pinch of chamo- 
mile equals 2 grams. 

Spoons are sometimes used to measure dry powders, and their 
values for this purpose we will state hereafter under the heading of 
"Powders." 



PART III 



LANGUAGE. 

Advantage of Latin Language. 

The Latin language is so generally employed all over the world 
for prescription writing, that it is very desirable that every phar- 
macist and physician should have at least an elementary knowledge 
of this language, and it is to be hoped that the time is not far in the 
future when such knowledge will be a fundamental requirement for 
admission to apprenticeship in a drug store or a physician's office. 

The question, whether Latin should be used in prescriptions and 
in pharmacy, scarcely admits of debate, although some have argued 
that the vernacular languages would be preferable, because Latin is 
not generally understood. 

But there are various reasons why Latin is preferable. English 
or vernacular names vary in different parts of the same country ; 
the same English names are applied to different drugs in the same 
neighborhoods ; vernacular names are unintelligible to f oreig-ners 
who have settled among us ; an English prescription written in one 
part of the country may be unintelligible in another part of the 
country, and is certain to be so in foreign countries ; then, too, the 
patient can see and understand the English prescription, and it 
would arouse all his ignorant prejudices, and the physician might 
be needlessly hampered in the treatment of disease by the foolish 
notions of his patient. Lastly, but not least, the public would soon 
know not only the nature of the ingredients of a prescription, but 
also their intrinsic values, and would, therefore, refuse to pay more 
than commercial profits for medical treatment or medicines, and 
proper remuneration for professional services and responsibilities 
would cease. 

There is still another reason to be urged against the abolition of 
the Latin language as the language of medicine and pharmacy, and 
that is that it would be lowering these sciences to the present un- 



LANGUAGE 89 

satisfactory status of professional education and preliminary prep- 
aration, instead of elevating the professions to the higher level of 
education, as required in European countries. The humiliating con- 
fession that but a small proportion of our physicians and phar- 
macists know anything about Latin, should urge us to use all our 
influence to better this state of affairs, rather than lead us to join 
the ranks of those who try to do without any scientific preliminary 
training. A universal language of science is a necessity, and, as 
Latin, in one sense, is a dead language, fixed in its rules, and not 
subjected to the changes necessarily incurred by living languages 
to accommodate themselves to new conditions of living, and espe- 
cially as it is understood more or less perfectly by the educated in 
all countries, this is the best language for the nomenclatures of the 
sciences and arts. Being the source from which so many of our 
English words were derived, it is also a very simple and easy lan- 
guage to learn, and, as was remarked before, every one who intends 
to study medicine or pharmacy should study Latin as an indis- 
pensable preliminary. The ignorance of Latin often shown in the 
prescriptions in some of the works of American writers on medical 
subjects, renders American medical education a by-word among 
the nations, and makes each earnest friend of our country and our 
profession long for the day when the real worth of our physicians 
will no longer be hidden under the bushel measure of philological 
ignorance.* 

Familiarity with the nomenclature of our drugs and chemicals, 
and the construction of the names of galenical preparations in Latin, 
and a knowledge of at least the declensions, is necessary to be able 
properly to read a prescription. It is true, a prescription may be 
written correctly by abbreviating the names of its ingredients ac- 
cording to certain simple rules not necessarily requiring a knowl- 
edge of Latin, but requiring a memorizing of the official names of 
drugs and preparations. Or the physician may use these names in 
his prescriptions without modification on account of case, when his 
prescriptions will perhaps -not be grammatically correct, but will 
certainly be intelligible anywhere. 



* Anyone desiring to study pharmaceutical or medical Latin more fully, will find Wall's 
"Elementary Lessons in Latin" (C. V. Mosby Company, 1917) well adapted for study 
without a teacher. 



90 the prescription 

Grammatical Construction op Prescriptions. 

In these pages it will be impossible to give any extended instruc- 
tion in Latin, but some of the elementary rules regarding the gram- 
matical construction of the prescription may not be out of place. 

Let us consider the following : 

IJ Magnesii sulphatis, §j. 
D. S.: Take at once. 

Or, literally translated into English: 

Take 

Of magnesia's sulphate, 1 ounce. 

Let it be given with the signature: Take at once. 

I£ (abbreviation for recipe) is the imperative mood of the active 
verb recipio, cepi, ceptum, 3, to take. It means "take, "and its 
object is placed in the accusative case in Latin, which is similar to 
the objective case in English. "Take" what? "Take one ounce;" 
oj is a sign of quantity, and in writing can not be altered according 
to case, but in reading is pronounced unciam unam, or in the 
accusative following recipe. 

The quantities being generally written in signs, which are, of 
course, indeclinable, they offer little difficulty in writing, even if 
the writer is totally ignorant of Latin. 

"Take 1 ounce" — of what? of sulphate. This is written in Latin 
in. the genitive case, which resembles the English possessive case. 
In Latin the construction would be "take the sulphate's 1 ounce." 

But there are many sulphates of various substances, and we must 
specify which of these sulphates we want. In the above prescrip- 
tion the sulphate of magnesia, or "magnesia's sulphate" is ordered. 
Magnesia, therefore, is also placed in the genitive (English, pos- 
sessive) case. But this genitive was already necessary in the official 
name, and, therefore, the word magnesii of\the official name re- 
quires no change by being used in a prescription>\____^' 

We see from the above that the prescription is the imperative 
"take," followed by the quantity, or object, in the accusative and 
the name of the drug in the genitive case. If the prescription con- 
tains two or more ingredients, the construction is, of course, the 
same for each. 

Then follow one or more imperatives or subjunctives, directing 
what shall be done with these ingredients ; in this case, "Detur (cum, 



LANGUAGE 91 

understood, or rather implied in the ablative) signatura" (let is be 
given, with the signature, or labeled), which instructs the phar- 
macist to place a label containing the words "take at once" on the 
package and then give it to the patient. 

When no quantity is mentioned in the prescription, the name of 
the ingredient or drug itself must be placed in the accusative case, 
as in the following prescription : 

R Pilulas catharticas V. 

Or, in English : 

Take five cathartic pills. 

Here we have a numeral adjective, which, being written m char- 
acter instead of in words, is, of course, really a sign, and is not 
altered according to case; and another adjective, "catharticas," 
which is declinable and must be made to agree with its noun. 

Adjectives. 

In names with an adjective qualifying a noun the adjective is 
placed in the same gender, number, and case as the noun to which 
it belongs. In the above prescription both the noun pilulas (pills) 
and the adjective catharticas (cathartic) are feminine gender, 
plural number, and accusative case. The numeral adjective quinque 
(five) is indeclinable. 

In pulvis ipecacuanha} compositus the adjective compositus (qual- 
ifying pulvis) must be declined in the same manner as pulvis, while 
ipecacuanhce is a genitive, which remains as it is, no matter how 
the name of the preparation may be employed. 

In the name Oleum menthai piperita the adjective does not mod- 
ify the noun in the nominative, but the noun which is in the genitive 
case. It is not a peppery oil of mint, but an oil of peppery mint 
(peppermint), and piperita;, therefore, is feminine, singular, geni- 
tive, agreeing with menthai. 

Prepositions, Adverbs, and Conjunctions. 

If any word follows a preposition it must be placed in the case 
governed by that preposition. Only three prepositions — ad, cum, 
and in — are employed in prescriptions, and the cases governed by 
them are easily remembered. 



92 THE PRESCRIPTION 

Ad (to, up to) is followed by the accusative. Its use is explained 
further on. 

Cum (with) governs, or is followed by, the ablative. The Latin 
ablative is the same as the English objective following ivith, from., 
by, or in. The Latin word in the ablative includes the preposition, 
which is sometimes written sometimes merely understood. Cum is 
occasionally used in names of preparations, as hydrargyrum cum 
creta. When such a name occurs in prescriptions, only the first 
word, the nominative, needs to be altered to the genitive, thus: 1^ — 
Hydrargyri cum creta, gr. X. 

In (in or into) is followed by the accusative (equal to the object- 
ive case following a transitive verb or a preposition) when it im- 
plies a change from one form or condition into another, thus : Divide 
in pilulas XII (divide into 12 pills) ; but it is followed by the 
ablative when it implies a state of rest or position, as when we 
write : " Detur in vitro nigro" (let it be given in a black vial — liter- 
ally, in a black glass). 

Ana (avd, of each) is an adverb used in prescriptions after the 
last of two or more successive ingredients of which equal quantities 
are ordered. It means "of each," or "of each so much." It is 
usually written as a sign, aa, and is followed by the sign for the 
quantity. 

Et (and) is a conjunction. It is often written, and is still more 
often to be understood when reading the prescription, as it is very 
frequently omitted in the subscriptions or directions to the drug- 
gist. 

Declensions. 

In Latin there are six cases — nominative, genitive, dative, ac- 
cusative, vocative, and ablative; of these the dative and vocative 
are not used in prescriptions. The nominative is practically the 
same in both languages ; the genitive resembles the possessive case ; 
the accusative is similar to the objective following a transitive 
verb; and the ablative is similar to the English objective following 
the prepositions with, from, in or by. In Latin the case is indi- 
cated by a change in the termination of the word- — by "case end- 
ings;" for instance, we say rosa (nominative, the rose) and rosa? 
(genitive, the rose's, or of the rose). 

As the great secret of elegant and correct prescription writing 



LANGUAGE 93 

depends on a knowledge of the case endings of the words of the 
official and unofficial pharmaceutical names, the reader will no 
doubt find it of interest to have his memory refreshed if he has 
already studied Latin, or to learn the declensions now if he has 
never done so before. 

A noun is often modified in form by the case in which it must 
be placed, and it is, therefore, of importance to understand what 
is meant by "case." It has been stated by writers on this subject 
that case is a word which signifies condition or relation. The re- 
lation which a noun beai*s to the other words of a sentence deter- 
mines its case, and, as the case is expressed by the form of the 
word, this relation determines the peculiar modification, if any, 
that is necessary to show the case. 

When a noun or pronoun is simply named, or is named as doing 
something — that is, as the subject of a verb — it is said to be in 
the nominative case (from the Latin adjective, nominaiivus, a, urn, 
appertaining to naming; in turn, from nomen, inis, n., name). Thus 
when we say "John," John is in the nominative ease, because 
merely named; or, if we say, "John studies," John is also in the 
nominative case, because John is named as the subject of a verb. 

Whenever a noun or pronoun is named as the possessor of some- 
thing, it is placed in the possessive case (from possessus, us, m., or 
possessio, onis, f., possession). When we say "John's hat," the 
name of John is modified by the addition of an apostrophe and an 
"s" to imply possession on the part of John. In English, posses- 
sion is often expressed by the name of a noun in the objective 
case following the preposition of, thus : The hat of John means the 
same as John's hat. And this method of expression is most com- 
monly employed in translating from the Latin genitive case (equiv- 
alent to the English possessive), and ferri citras is, therefore, trans- 
lated to citrate of iron rather than to iron's citrate, which latter 
would be the literal translation. 

When a noun or pronoun is mentioned as affected by the action 
of some one or something else, either directly or indirectly — or, in 
other words, when it is the object of an action — it is said to be 
in the objective case (from objectum, the supine of objicio, jeci, 
jectum, 3, to lay before, to expose to) . A noun or pronoun follow- 
ing a transitive verb is in the objective case, as when we say, "the 
patient swallows pills," or when we say in the prescription, "take 



94 THE PRESCRIPTION 

1 ounce," etc. In the first example the word "pills" is in the 
objective case; in the second, the word "ounce." 

Or, a noun may be in the objective case when it follows a preposi- 
tion — of, with, in, by, etc. In the sentence, "the medicine is in the 
bottle," the word bottle is in the objective case, following "in." 

The relation of the words to each other and to the verbs of the 
sentences determines the cases, and, as these circumstances vary, 
the cases are altered. "Circumstances alter cases" was not origi- 
nally intended to be used in this connection, but it applies quite 
forcibly nevertheless. The whole subject of cases is made very 
plain in French's "A Word to the Wise," from which the follow- 
ing is an extract: "I will now tell you how you may always dis- 
tinguish the three cases. Bead the sentence attentively, and un- 
derstand accurately what the nouns are represented as doing. If 
any person or thing be represented as performing an action, that 
person or thing is a noun in the nominative case. If any person 
or thing be represented as possessing something, that person or 
thing is a noun in the possessive case. And if any person or thing 
be represented as neither performing nor possessing, it is a noun 
in the objective, whether directly or indirectly affected by the 
action of the nominative ; because, as we have in English but three 
cases which contain the substance of the six Latin cases, whatever 
is neither nominative nor possessive must be objective." 

In Latin there are six cases: The nominative (equivalent to the 
English case of the same name) ; the genitive (equivalent to the 
English possessive case) ; the dative (equivalent to the English ob- 
jective following the preposition "to," as in the sentence, "It is 
given to John"), which is rarely or never used in prescriptions; 
the accusative (equivalent to the English objective after a transi- 
tive verb, or such prepositions as "to" or "into," etc.) ; the voca- 
tive (used in appellation, as when we say, "Hello, John") ; and 
the ablative (equivalent to the English objective following such 
prepositions as "from," "with," "in," or "by"). 

Of these six cases the dative and vocative may be ignored for our 
purposes because they are not used in prescription writing. 

As pronouns are not used in prescriptions except as "under- 
stood" in the imperatives recipe (take, or take thou), misce (mix, 
or mix thou), etc., we need not speak about them, and can restrict 
our remarks for the present to nouns. With very few excep- 



LANGUAGE 95 

tions Latin nouns alter their forms according to the case in which 
they stand, and this alteration consists in a change of the last 
syllable or termination. Nouns which do not undergo such changes 
are said to be indeclinable, which is generally expressed in diction- 
aries by the abbreviation "indecl." after the word, thus: "catechu, 
indecl. ' ' 

There are five declensions in Latin, depending on the change of 
the nominative to the genitive — that is, therefore, according to the 
formation of the genitive. 

The genitive endings of the different declensions are as follows : 

First declension ae (often printed se). 

Second declension i. 

Third declension is. 

Fourth declension us. 

Fifth declension ei. 

By dropping the ending from the genitive singular the stem of 
the word is found, and the other cases are then obtained by adding 
the respective ease endings. 

First Declension. 

This declension comprises all titles of drugs ending in a, except 
coca, kava, kola, aspidosperma, tlieobroma, and physostigma; most 
nouns of the first declension are feminine, and their cases are 
formed in the singular by changing final a to ae in the genitive, 
am in the accusative, while the ablative is like the nominative, 
ending in a. In the plural the nominative is ae; the genitive, arum; 
the accusative, as; and the ablative, is. 

Or, placing this in tabular form, the endings of the first de- 
clension are thus : 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nominative a. ae. 

Genitive ae. arum. 

Accusative am. as. 

Ablative . ; .... a. is. 

The plural is rarely employed in prescriptions, our Pharma- 
copoeia using the singular in the nomenclature of drugs and prepa- 
rations. European works, however, frequently use the plural, and 
it is, therefore, thought advantageous to give the endings for the 
plural also. 



96 THE PRESCRIPTION 

Declining the word gutta, we have the following forms : 

SINGULAR. 

Nominative gutta, a drop. 

Genitive gutta;, of a drop. 

Accusative guttam, a drop. 

Ablative . . ; gutta, with, from, or by a drop. 

PLURAL. 

Nominative gutta, drops. 

Genitive guttaram, of drops. 

Accusative guttas, drops. 

Ablative guttis, with, from, or by drops. 

Some words, as used in pharmacy, have no plural, as, for in- 
stance, acacia, which is only used in the singular number. It is 
true, however, that this same word, when applied to the acacias or 
the trees from which the drug is derived is used in the plural 
form. 

The student who has never studied Latin, but who wishes to 
get a rudimentary knowledge of the subject of Latin case modifica- 
tions, will find it profitable to decline a few nouns in the above 
manner, ignoring the plural, if he prefers, as he will make little use 
of it in prescription writing. Let him take for this purpose a few 
such words as acliillea, altlima, ammonia, amygdala, aqua, bacca, 
brayera, ergota, etc., not forgetting that aspidosperma, pkysostigma 
and tlieobroma are exceptional nouns ending in a which are neuter 
and declined according to the third declension, with a genitive end- 
ing in atis, while coca, kava, and kola are neuter nouns and inde- 
clinable. 

There are some Latin words which are declined according to the 
first declension, which are from Greek nouns, and which end in e, 
and of which the case endings are irregular. They. are declined: 

SINGULAR 

Nominative e. 

Genitive es. 

Accusative en. 

Ablative e. 

The only words used in prescriptions which have this form are 
aloe, masticlie, and statice, none of which are used in the plural, 
for which reason we omit the latter ; besides the plural is regular, 
and, therefore, needs not to be repeated. 



LANGUAGE 97 

As already stated, adjectives must agree with their nouns in 
number, gender, and person. All nouns of the first declension 
which are used in prescriptions, end in a or e, and are feminine. 
The feminine form of adjectives of the first and second declensions 
cud in a, and such adjectives are declined like gutta, above. The 
masculine and neuter forms are declined according to the second 
declension. The three forms of these adjectives are printed in dic- 
tionaries according to this manner: Aromaticus, a, urn, adj., aro- 
matic — of which the first is always masculine, the second feminine, 
and the last the neuter form. 

Second Declension. 

Pharmaceutical nouns ending in us are declined according to 
the second declension, and are of masculine gender. A few words, 
however, ending in us are exceptions to this rule and are declined 
according to the third or fourth declensions. Nouns ending in os, 
are also declined according to the second declension, and may be 
masculine or feminine. Nouns ending in um or on (not increasing 
in the genitive, that is, not increasing the number of its syllables), 
are also declined according to this declension and are of neuter 
gender. All of them form the genitive by changing the nominative 
ending to i. 

The case endings of the above forms of words of the second 
declension are as follows : 

SINGULAR. 

Nominative us. os. um. on. 

Genitive i. i. i. i. 

Accusative urn. on. um. on. 

Ablative o. o. o. o. 

PLURAL. 

Nominative i. i. a. a. 

Genitive orum. oram. oriun. orum. 

Accusative os. os. a. a. 

Ablative is. is. is. is. 

Words ending in us or um are the common pure Latin mascu- 
line and neuter forms of the nouns of the second declension. The 
nouns ending in os or on are of Greek origin. 



98 THE PRESCRIPTION 

Nouns ending in the common form of us are declined as follows : 

SINGULAR. 

Nominative syrupws, sjrrup. 

Genitive synipi, of syrup. 

Accusative sympum, syrup. 

Ablative syrupo, with, from, or by syrup. 

PLURAL. 

Nominative syrupi, syrups. 

Genitive syruporwm, of syrups. 

Accusative syrupos, syrups. 

Ablative syrupis, with, from, or by syrups. 

The student may practice by declining in the same manner such 
words as calamus, coccus, crocus, eucalyptus, ficus, etc. 

All pharmaceutical nouns and adjectives ending in us are de- 
clined as above except rlius, n., and fortius, adj., which are of the 
third declension; cormus, Jiaustus, potus, fructus, quercus, and 
spiritus, which are of the fourth declension (which see), and unus, 
adj., the genitive of which ends in ius. 

It must be remembered also that the words alnus, juniperus, 
primus, rJiamnus, sambucus and ulmus, although ending in us and 
declined like the common masculine nouns of the second declension, 
are of the feminine gender and the adjectives must, therefore, have 
the feminine form in order to agree with their nouns, thus: Prunus 
Virginiana, ulmus fulva, etc. 

Nouns of Greek origin ending in os are generally masculine, and 
the cases are formed like those of nouns ending in us, except that 
the accusative singular ends in on. Cissampelos, f., diospyros, f., 
and prinos, m., are nouns declined thus : 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nominative diospyros. diospyrt. 

Genitive diospyri. Aiospyrorvm. 

Accusative diospyron. diospyros. 

Ablative diospyro. diospyris. 

Regular Latin neuter nouns of the second declension end in urn, 
and are declined as follows: 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nominative acidwm. acida. 

Genitive acidt. acidori/m. 

Accusative acidwm. acida-. 

Ablative acido. acidis. 



LANGUAGE 99 

The student will do well to decline absinthium, aconitum, amylum, 
argent urn, balsamum, calcium, capsicum, chloroformum, collodium, 
decoctum, emplastrum, extraction, infusum, linum, oleum, rheum, 
sodium, vinum, zincum, and other nouns ending in um, in the 
same manner as acidum. 

The only exception to the rule that nouns or adjectives ending 
in um, which are used in prescriptions, are declined as above, is 
the neuter form of the adjective unus, a, um, which has the end- 
ing ius in the genitive ; thus : unius. 

Nouns of Greek origin ending in on are neuter, and are declined 
in the same manner, except that the nominative and accusative 
singular end in on, instead of um. 

SINGULAR. 

Nominative efythroxylow. 

Genitive erythroxyli. 

Accusative erythroxylcm. 

Ablative eryt.hvoxylo. 

Hcematoxylon, liriodendron, pyroxylon, and toxicodendron are 
declined in the same way. 

Erigeron, however, is an exception, being declined according to 
the third declension, and forming its genitive thus : Erigerontis 
(increasing in the genitive). 

Third Declension. 

The' third declension is somewhat peculiar in consti'uction, and 
many words with very unlike endings are declined according to it. 

With very few exceptions, already mentioned or yet to be men- 
tioned, all nouns not ending in a, us, or um are of the third de- 
clension. Nouns in this declension may end in a, e, i, o, y, c, I, n, r, 
s, t, or x, and may be masculine, feminine, or neuter. 

On account of the variety and irregularity of its case endings 
this declension is the most difficult to learn, but it may be remem- 
bered that a large number of nouns of this declension end in as, 
which is changed to atis in the genitive, thus : acetas, genitive 
acetatis; the exceptions being asclepias, genitive asclepiadis, and 
mas, genitive maris. 

Nouns ending in go are feminine, and the genitive ends in ginis; 
thus : mucilago, gen. mucilaginis. Nouns ending in io, formed from 
a verb, are feminine, and the genitive changes the o to onis; as : 



100 THE PRESCRIPTION 

lotio, gen. lotionis. Nouns ending in ma are neuter, and have 
a changed to atis in the genitive ; thus : tlieobroma, gen. tlieobrom- 
atis. 

The nouns of this declension may be divided into two classes: 
those having a case ending in the nominative and those having 
none. In the first class the stem of the word is contained in the 
nominative, together with the ending which ends in e, s, or x; in the 
second class the nominative singular is either the same as the 
stem, as in chloral, genitive cMoralis, or it is formed by dropping 
or changing one or more letters of the stem. 

It will be remembered that the stem of a declinable word is 
ascertained by dropping its genitive ending. (See page 95.) In 
the word lotio, genitive lotionis, the stem of the word is lotion, and 
the nominative is formed by dropping the final n of the stem. In 
the word radix, genitive radicis, the stem of the word is radic, 
and the nominative is formed by changing c to x. In the word 
cortex, genitive corticis, the stem is cortic, and the nominative is 
formed by changing the c to x, and the vowel i to e. 

The other cases are formed by dropping the is of the genitive 
and placing the proper endings instead. 

The case endings of the third declension are as follows: 

SINGULAR. 

Male and Female. Neuter. 

Nominative s (es, is), — . e, - — . 

Genitive is. is. 

Accusative em (im). like nominative. 

Ablative e (i). e (i). 

PLTJKAL. 

Nominative es. a (ia). 

Genitive urn (ium). um (ium). 

Accusative es. a (ia). 

Ablative ibus. ibus. 

The dash in the nominative singular means that the case ending 
is wanting. 

In order to decline words of the third declension properly we 
must know the nominative and genitive singular and the gender 
in order to choose the proper set of case endings. In dictionaries 
these words are, therefore, in the following form: Mucilago, inis, 
f., mucilage. 



LANGUAGE 101 

It would lead us altogether too far to explain when the endings 
um or ium should be used in the genitive plural, or when a or ia 
are proper in the nominative or accusative, plural, neuter ; nor is 
it necessary, as it is not customary in this country to use the plural 
in prescriptions, and the above table of the case endings will en- 
able the student to recognize the cases if he should come across 
them in his reading. 

The ablative singular also is very rarely used in prescriptions, 
but it may be remembered that the ending e is used in most nouns ; 
i is used in neuters ending in e, al, and ar; in adjectives in er or is 
when used as nouns ; in nouns with im in the accusative, etc. This 
can not be fully explained except by a thorough consideration of 
the rules of the Latin language, which is beyond the scope of our 
present writing. 

No one characteristic example of this declension can be given as 
it is too irregular. 

Fourth Declension. 

A few Latin words used in prescriptions are declined according 
to the fourth declension. They end in us, m., and u, n., and have 
us as the case ending of the genitive singular. 

The following are the case endings of this declension. 

SINGULAR. 

Nominative us, u. 

Genitive us. US. 

Accusative um. u. 

Ablative u. u. 

PLURAL. 

Nominative us. ua. 

Genitive uum. mun. 

Accusative us. ua. 

Ablative ibus. ■ ibus. 

Nouns of this declension ending in us are generally masculine; 
those ending in u are neuter. The word fructus, m., is thus de- 
clined : 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nominative fructws. fructws. 

Genitive f ruetws. f ructwim. 

Accusative f ructem. f metes. 

Ablative f ructa. fructibus. 



102 THE PRESCRIPTION 

In the same manner the following may be declined : Haustus, us, 
m., potus, us, m., spiritus, us, m., quercus, us, f., and cornus, 
xis, f . The last word must not be confounded, however, with cornu 
us, horn, used as the name of an almost obsolete drug : cornu cervi, 
or hart's horn. 

Fifth Declension. 

Only two words of this declension are used in prescriptions, 
namely, dies, ei, m., or f., day, which is sometimes used in signa- 
tures, thus: "ter in die," and species, ei, f., a species or kind. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nominative es. es. 

Genitive ei. erum. 

Accusative em. es. 

Ablative e. ebus. 

Dies is declined thus, but species, meaning a mixture of herbs 
for teas, is really the plural, species, gen. specierum, f., according 
to some authors it has no genitive plural. 

Indeclinable Nouns. 

Quite a number of nouns used in pharmacy and prescriptions are 
indeclinable. That is, the case endings for all cases are alike, and 
these words, therefore, remain unchanged, no matter what may 
be the case. 

As a general rule words adopted from strange languages are in- 
declinable, as for instance: The Peruvian word coca or cucha, the 
African word kola, the Arabic word gummi, the Hindu word 
elemi, etc. 

The following is a partial list of these words : 

Alcohol, Coca, Kousso, 

Amyl, Curare, Mais, 

Buchu, Elemi, Matico, 

Cacao, Jaborandi, Sago, 

Catechu, Kino, Sassafras. 

Others are included in the list of words further on. 

Indeclinable nouns are neuter, and the adjectives must agree 
by also being used in the neuter form. 

Two of the above words are somewhat peculiar, however. Alco- 
hol, n., indecl., is neuter, and is so used in the Pharmacopo?ia, for 



LANGUAGE 103 

instance, in the title alcohol dilutum. But according to many good 
authorities, to the acceptance of whose views the writer confesses 
preference, alcohol is not indeclinable, but is alcohol, olis, m., and 
the pharmacopoeia! title should, therefore, be alcohol dilutus. 

When the Latin word for Indian corn or maize is spelled mais it 
is indeclinable and neuter, but when spelled mays, it is mays, dis, 
f. ; that is, it is declinable according to the third declension, and is 
feminine. We may, therefore, say either ustilago mais, or ustilago 
may dis. 

Adjectives. 

Adjectives are parts of speech used to qualify nouns, as the 
good man, the beautiful woman. In English the adjective has one 
form only no matter whether it applies to a masculine, feminine, 
or neuter noun, or in what case such noun may be ; in other words, 
adjectives are indeclinable in English. In Latin, however, adjec- 
tives have different gender endings as well as different case end- 
ings, and must, therefore, be declined to agree with their nouns, as, 
for example, if we consider alcohol indeclinable and neuter, then 
the Latin title for diluted alcohol is alcohol dilutum, while if we 
consider it declinable it is masculine, and the adjective must have 
the masculine ending us, thus: alcohol dilutus. 

Some adjectives have three forms, masculine, feminine, and 
neuter; of which the feminine form is declined according to the 
first, and the masculine and neuter according to the second declen- 
sion. 

All other adjectives are of the third declension. 

Adjectives of First and Second Declensions. 

All adjectives used in prescriptions which are declinable accord- 
ing to the first and second declensions, have the following endings 
in the nominative singular : 

MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. 

us. a. um. 

In dictionaries it is customary to give the masculine form, fol- 
lowed by the feminine and neuter endings and the letters "adj.," 
thus : Amarus, a, um, adj., bitter. These adjectives are declined 
regularly, like nouns of the corresponding declensions. Some ir- 
regular forms of adjectives of the second declension occur also, as, 



104 THE PRESCRIPTION 

for example, those ending in er, etc., but as the writer can not re- 
member any of these that are likely to occur in a prescription, it 
does not seem necessary to dwell on the method of declining them. 
The only irregular adjective of the first and second declensions 
used in prescriptions, is units, a, urn, of which the genitive in all 
three genders is unius. 

Adjectives of the Third Declension. 

These are divided into three classes, according to the peculiar- 
ities of their endings in the nominative singular : 

1. Those that have a different ending for each gender: 

MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. 

Nominative er. is. e. 

As in acer, acris, acre, sharp. 

2. Those having the same ending for masculine and feminine, 
and another for neuter : 

MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. 

Nominative is. is. e. 

As in dulcis, dulce, sweet. 

3. Adjectives with only one ending for all three genders. These 
endings generally have as a final letter s or x, as in felix, ids, happy ; 
fragrans, antis, fragrant ; princeps, ipis, first, most important, etc. ; 
more rarely they end in I or r. 

All adjectives of this declension are declined like nouns of the 
same declensions and of corresponding endings, with certain ex- 
ceptions, prominent among which is that the ablative generally 
ends in i, instead of in e as is the rule with nouns. 

Comparison of Adjectives. 

In Latin as in English we may compare adjectives in three ways : 
first, by changing the endings; second, by joining with an adverb; 
and third, irregularly, by the use of different words. 

In both languages, also, we have the three degrees, the positive, 
comparative, and superlative. Examples: 

1. Plain, plainer, plainest. 

2. Beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful. 

3. Good, better, best. 

In Latin, adjectives are compared regularly by adding to the 



LANGUAGE 



105 



stem of the ordinary or positive form, which, as will be remem- 
bered, is obtained by dropping the genitive endings, the following 
endings : 

MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. 

Comparative ior. ior. ius. 

Superlative .issimus. issima. issimum. 

Thus: Alius, a, urn, high; altior, ius, higher; altissimus, a, um, 
highest. 

The following irregularities may be noted : 

Adjectives ending in er add rimus in the superlative, as acer, 
sharp ; acerrimus, sharpest. Also, 

POSITIVE. 

Good bonus. 

Bad malus. 

Large magrms. 

Much .multus. 

Small parvus. 

The formation of a comparative or superlative by aid of an ad- 
verb is not apt to occur in prescription writing ; in fact, the neces- 
sity for comparing any adjectives is rare in prescriptions. 

Numeral Adjectives. 

The writing of numbers in prescriptions offers no difficulty to 
any one not a Latin scholar, as the ordinary Roman notation is 
used. All numbers are expressed by one or a combination of two 
or more of the following letters : I, V, X, L, C, D, M. I means 1 ; 
V, 5; X, 10; L, 50; C, 100; D, 500; and M, 1,000. These should 
be written altogether as capital letters, but in prescriptions Ave find 
them much more frequently written as small letters, or, in print, as 
lower-case letters, and it is also customary to write the last I, when 
several are placed together, like a printed lower-case "j." The 
letters are combined thus : 



COMPARATIVE. 


SUPERLATIVE. 


melior. 


optimus. 


pejor. 


pessimus. 


major. 


maximus. 


plus. 


plurimus. 


minor. 


minimus. 



I 


1 


VIII 


8 


LX 


. 60 


II 


2 


IX 


9 


XC 


. 90 


Ill 


3 


X 


10 


c 


. 100 


IV 


4 


XI 


11 


cc 


. 200 


V 


5 


XX 


20 


DC 


. 600 


VI 


6 


XL 


40 


M 


.1,000 


VII 


7 


L 


50 


MDCCCLXXXVI. 


. 1886 



106 



THE PRESCRIPTION 



It will be noticed that four is written IV, the letter I (1) pre- 
fixed to V (5), meaning "one less than five." In the same manner 
nine is written IX, or "one less than ten;" forty, XL, or "ten less 
than fifty;" and ninety, XC, or "ten less than one hundred." 
Numbers are written by merely commencing with the largest at the 
left, then the next largest, and so on, according to value of the 
single letters, until the total is the number which we wish to ex- 
press. In the example of the number of the year, above, this may 
be seen. 

In reading prescriptions it is necessary to know the names of 
cardinal as well as ordinal numerals, which are found in the fol- 
lowing columns : 

The cardinal numbers are read one, two, three, etc. ; the ordinals, 
first, second, third, etc. 



1 I. 

2 II. 

3 III. 

4 IV. 

5 V. 

6 VI. 

7 VII. 

8 VIII. 

9 IX. 

10 X. 

11 XI. 

12 XII. 

13 XIII. 

14 XIV. 

15 XV. 

16 XVI. 

17 XVII. 

18 XVIII. 

19 XIX. 

20 XX. 

21 XXI. 

22 XXII. 

30 XXX. 

40 XL. 

50 L. 

60 LX. 

70 LXX. 

"Or, unus ct viginti, etc. 



CARDINALS. 

unus, a, um. 

duo, dusE, - duo. 

tres, tria. 

quatuor. 

quinque. 

sex. 

septem. 

octo. 

novem. 

decern. 

undecim. 

duodecim. 

tredeeim. 

quatuordecim. 

quindecim. 

sexdecim. 

septendecim. 

duodeviginti. 

undeviginti. 

viginti. 

viginti unus.* 

viginti duo. 

triginta. 

quadriginta. 

quinquaginta. 

.sexaginta. 

septuaginta. 



ORDINALS. 

primus. 

secundus. 

tertius. 

quartus. 

quintus. 

sextus. 

Septimus. 

octavus. 

nonus. 

decimus. 

undecimus. 

duodecimus. 

tertius decimus. 

quartus decimus. 

quintus decimus. 

sextus decimus. 

septimus decimus. 

duodevicesimus. 

undevicesimus. 

vicesimus. 

vicesimus primus. 

vicesimus secundus. 

tricesimus. 

quadragesimus. 

quinquagesimus. 

sexagesimus. 

septuagesimus. 



LANGUAGE 



107 



CARDINALS. ORDINALS. 

80 LXXX. octoginta. octogesimus. 

90 XC. nonaginta. nonagesimus. 

100 C. centum. centesimus. 

101 CI. centum unus. centesimus primus. 

200 CC. dueenti, se, a, ducentesimus. 

300 CCC. trecenti, se, a. ■ trecentesimus. 

400 CCCC. quadrigenti. quadringentesimus. 

500 D. quingenti. quingentesimus. 

600 DC. sexcenti. sexcentesimus. 

700 DCC. septingenti. septingentesimus. 

800 DCCC. octingenti. octingentesimus. 

900 DCCCC. nongenti. nongentesimus. 

1,000 M. mille. millesinius. 

All of the ordinals have all three gender endings — us, a, um — 
and are declined like all other adjectives of. the first and second 
declensions. 

Of the cardinal units, only unus, duo, and tres are declined. All 
tens and centum are indeclinable. The hundreds are declined as 
plurals of the first and second declensions, thus: dueenti, ce, a. 
Mille is also sometimes declined as a neuter of the third declension. 

Unus, a, um; duo, ce, o; and tres, tria are declined as follows: 

MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. 

Nominative unus. una. unum. 

Genitive unius. unius. unius. 

Accusative unum. imam. unum. 

Ablative uno. una. uno. 

Nominative duo. duae. duo 

Genitive duorum. duarum. duorum. 

Accusative duos or duo. duas. duo. 

Ablative duobus. duabus. duobus. 

Nominative tres. tres. tria. 

Genitive trium. trium. trium. 

Accusative tres. tres. tria. 

Ablative tribus. tribus. tribus. 

Fractions can only be expressed in words, with the exception of 
"half," which is abbreviated to "ss" or "/3." The first of these 
signs is an English double "s, " the second a German double "s;" 
both from the Latin adjective semissis, e, half. Other fractions 
are written by adding to the word pars, tis, f. (part), the ordinal 



108 THE PRESCRIPTION 

numeral which expresses the fraction, as pars decima, the tenth 
part ; pars vicesima qucdrta, the twenty-fourth part. The word pars 
may either be expressed or understood. 

In prescriptions it is customary to depart from the Latin and 
use Arabic numerals for all fractions less than one-half; "one- 
fifth of a grain" would, therefore, be written "gr. %," and not 
"grant pars quinta." 

Participles. 

Participles are declined like adjectives. They give the meaning 
of a verb in the form of an adjective, thus: Aqua bulliens, boiling 
water; bulliens being a participial adjective from the active pres- 
ent participle of the verb bullio, ivi, Hum, 4 to boil. These active 
present participles form adjectives of the third class of the third 
declension. 

The active future and the passive perfect and future participles 
are also used as adjectives, and as they end in us, a, urn, they are 
declined like adjectives of the first and second declensions. Of 
these forms the passive future participle is sometimes used in the 
subscription of a prescription, as when we say, "fiat massa divi- 
denda in pilula-s XXIV;" let a mass, to be divided into 24 pills, 
he made. 

List op Nouns and Adjectives. 

For convenience of reference we append an alphabetical list of 
nouns and adjectives likely to occur in prescriptions. The list is 
necessarily incomplete, because there are many obsolete or obso- 
lescent words, as well as some new ones not yet in general use, 
which may occasionally find their way into a prescription, that are 
not here enumerated. The following abbreviations following the 
words are used: The numbers refer to the declensions; "m.," 
means masculine; "f.," feminine; and "n." neuter; "adj.," is 
adjective or participial adjective; "indecl.," designates indeclin- 
able words. All words are nouns unless otherwise marked. 

Words are regularly declined when they are designated only by 
a number following, and unless marked otherwise all followed by 
"1" are understood to be of the first declension, feminine; if 
marked " 2, " means of second declension, and masculine if ending 
in us or os, or neuter if ending in um or on, exceptions being 
marked by the letter indicating the gender. After adjectives end- 



LANGUAGE 109 

ing in us, a, um, no number is given, as it is understood that these 
are declinable according to the first and second declensions. The 
English meaning is not given, as this list is not intended for diction- 
ary purposes, but to ascertain the method of declining. 

As the genitive singular is used so much more frequently than 
any other case, it may prove of use to call attention to the follow- 
ing recapitulations: 

1. All words of this list ending in a and marked "1," form the 
genitive by changing the a to ce. 

2. All words of this list ending in us, os, urn, or on and marked 
" 2, " change the above endings to i in the genitive. 

3. Adjectives and participial adjectives ending in us, a, or um 
form their genitives in a corresponding manner. 

4. All other words of this list have the genitives stated, but it 
may be convenient to remember that usually words of the third 
declension ending in as change this to atis in the genitive ; ending 
in ma, change a to atis; ending in go, change o to inis; and ending 
in io, change o to onis. The genitive singular of the third declen- 
sion ends in s or is, and the nominative ending is, quite frequently, 
although by no means always, changes to idis in the genitive. 

Some of the words in this list have the genitive formed in differ- 
ent ways, and in such cases, if both are more or less in use, both 
are given ; the first one being, in the judgment of the writer, more 
commonly used. See, as examples: Alcohol, antliemis, decoctum, 
elixir, etc. 

In some cases where a word has two forms, one of which is 
common while the other is quite uncommon, the latter is omitted, 
as in hydrastis, the genitive of which is generally Jiydrastis, al- 
though some authorities give it as hydrastidis. So also some words 
may be marked with one gender while some authorities occasionally 
give another gender, but it is believed that the list gives the best 
usage in these regards. 

In recent years many synthetic chemicals have been intro- 
duced under arbitrary names given them by the manufacturers. 
Most of these have no Latin names, except the scientifically cor- 
rect chemical names by which they are not designated in prescrip- 
tions. Most practitioners treat such names as, aspirin, phenacetin, 
argyrol, thymol, etc., as indeclinable Latin nouns, that is, they 
do not attempt to change them to a genitive form. This is proba- 



no 



THE PRESCRIPTION 



bly the most approved method of prescribing them. Others treat 
words of this kind ending in in as if they were neuters of the 
second declension ; the British and German pharmacopoeias, for 
instance, have changed phenacetin to phenucetinum. Words end- 
ing in ine are changed to Latin words ending in ina and are 
treated as "nouns of the first declension. Thymol is used as 
Thymolum, 2nd declension, in the G. P., and as Thymol, is, 3rd 
declension, in the U. S. P., etc. 



Reference List. 



Abrus, 2. 
Absinthium, 2. 
Abstractum, 2. 
Acacia, 1. 

Acer, acris, acre, 3 ; adj. 
Acetas, atis, 3, m. 
Acetatus, a, um; adj. 
Aceticus, a, um ; adj. 
Acetum, 2. 
Achillea, 1 . 
Acidum, 2. 
Aeonitina, 1. 
Ac'onitum, 2. 
Aetata, 1. 
Adeps, ipis, ?>, m. 
Adhaesivus, a, um; adj. 
Adiantum, 2. 
^qualis, e, 3 ; adj. 
JErugo, inis, 3. 
iEther, is, 3, m. 
iEthereus, a, um ; adj. 
Agaricus, 2. 
Ailantus, 2, /. 
Albumen, inis, 3, n. 
Albus, a, um; adj. 
Alcohol, indecl., n.; or 

Alcohol, olis, 3, m. 
Alcoholicus, a, um ; adj. 
Aletris, idis, 3, f. 
Allium, 2. 
Alnus, 2, /. 
Aloe, es, 1, /. 
Aloinum, 2. 
Alstonia, 1. 
Althaea, 1. 
Alumen, inis, 3, n. 
Aluminium, 2. 
Amarus, a, um ; adj. 
Americanus, a, um ; adj. 
Ammonia, 1. 
Ammoniacum, 2. 
Ammoniatus, a, um ; adj. 



Ammonium, 2. 
Ampelopsis, is, 3, /. 
Amygdala, 1. 
Amyl, indecl.; n. 
Amylicus, a, um ; adj. 
Amylum, 2. 
Angelica, 1. 
Angustura, 1. 
Animalis, e, 3 ; adj. 
Anisatus, a, um ; adj. 
Anisum, 2. 

Anthemis, is. 3. /. ; or 
Anthemis, idis, 3, /. 
Antidotum, 2. 
Antimonium, 2. 
Aperiens, ntis, 3 ; adj. 
Apiolum, 2. 
Apocynum, 2. 
Apomorphina, 1. 
Aqua, 1. 
Aralia, 1. 
Areea, 1. 
Argentum, 2. 
Arnica, 1. 

Aromaticus, a, um ; adj. 
Arsenias, atis, 3, m. 
Arsenis, itis, 3, m. 
Arsenicum, 2. 
Arseniosus, a, um ; adj. 
Arsenium, 2. 
Arum, 2. 
Asafoetida, 1. 
Asarum, 2. 
Asclepias, adis, 3, /. 
Asellus, 2. 
Aspidium, 2. 
Aspidosperma, atis, 3, n. 
Atrophia, 1. 
Aurantium, 2. 
Aurum, 2. 
Ava kava, indecl. 
Avena, 1. 



LANGUAGE 



111 



Axuugia, 1. 
Azederach, indecl. 
Bacca, 1. 
Balsamum, 2. 
Baptisia, 1. 

Barbadensds, e, 3 ; adj. 
Barium, 2. 
Beberina, 1. 
Belladonna, 1. 
Benzoas, atis, 3, 7?;. 
Benzoe, oes, 1, /. 
Benzoicus, a, um ; adj. 
Benzoinatus, a, um ; adj. 
Benzoinum, 2. 
Berberina, 1. 
Berberis, idis, 3, /. 
Bergamum, 2. 
Biboras, atis, 3, to. 
Bicarbonas, atis, 3, m. 
Bichloridus, a, um; adj. 
Biehromas, atis, 3, to. 
Bismuthum, 2. 
Bisulphas, atis, 3, m. 
Bitartras, atis, 3, in. 
Blatta, 1. 
Boldus, 2. 
Bolus, 2. 

Boras, atis, 3, to. 
Borax, acis, 3, m. 
Borieus, a, um ; adj. 
Bray era, 1. 
Bromidum, 2. 
Bryonia, 1. 
Buchu^ indecl. 
Bulliens, entis ; adj. 
Burgundicus, a, um; adj. 
Bursa, 1. 
Butyrum, 2. 
Cacao, indecl. 
Cactus, 2. 
Cadmium, 2. 
Caffea, 1. 
CafFeina, 1. 
Cajaputi, indecl.; or 

Cajaputum, 2. 
Calamus, 2. 
Calcium, 2. 
Calendula, 1. 
Calisaya, 1. 
Calomel, indecl. 
Calumba, 1. 
Calx, cis, 3, /. 
Camellia, 1. 
Camphora, 1. 
Camphoratus, a, um; adj'. 
Canadensis, e, 3; adj. 
Canella, 1. 
Canna, 1. 



Cannabis, is, 3, /. 

Cantharis, idis, 3, /. 

Capensis, e, 3 ; adj. 

Capsella, 1. 

Capsicum, 2. 

Capsula, 1. 

Carbo, onis, 3, m. 

Carbolas, atis, 3, m. 

Carbdlicus, a, um ; adj. 

Carbonas, atis, 3, in. 

Carboneum, 2. 

Carbonicus, a, um ; adj. 

Cardamomum, 2. 

Caro, carnis, 3, /. 

Carota, 1. 

Carthamus, 2. 

Carum, 2. 

Caryopliyllus, 2. 

Cascara Sagrada, 1, or indecl. 

Cascarilla, 1. 

Cassia, 1. 

Castanea, 1. 

Castoreum, 2. 

Cataplasma, atis, 3, n. 

Cataria, 1. 

Catechu, indecl. 

Catharticus, a, um ; adj. 

Caulophyllum,-2. 

Caoutchouc, indecl. 

Cedro, indecl. 

Centifolius, a, um ; adj. 

Centigramma, 1. 

Centimetrum, 2. 

Cera, 1. 

Cerasus, 2, /. 

Cera turn, 2. 

Ceratus, a, um ; adj. 

Cereus, 2. 

Cerevisia, 1. 

Cerif erus, a, um ; adj. 

Cerium, 2. 

Cetaeeum, 2. 

Cetraria, 1. 

Chamselirium, 2. 

Chamomilla, 1. 

Charta, 1. 

Chartula, 1. 

Chelidonium, 2. 

Chenopodium, 2. 

Chimaphilia, 1. 

Chinoidinum, 2. 

Chionanthus, 2. 

Chirata, 1. 

Chloral, is, 3, n. 

Chloralum, 2. 

Chloras, atis, 3, to. 

Chloratus, a, um ; adj. 

Chloridum, 2. 



112 



THE PRESCRIPTION 



Chlorinatus, a, urn; adj. 
Chlorinium, 2. 
Chlorodyna, 1. 
Chloroformum, 2. 
Chondrus, 2. 

Chromicus, a, um ; adj. ' 
Chrysarobinum, 2. 
Chrysophanicus, a, um ; adj. 
Cicuta, 1. 
Cigareta, 1. 
Cimicifuga, 1. 
Cina, 1. 
Cinchona, 1. 
Cinchonidina, 1. 
Cinehonina, 1. 
Cinnamomum, 2. 
Citras, atis, 3, m. 
Citricus, a, um ; adj. 
Citrus, 2. 
Coca, indecl. 
Cocaina, 1. 
Coccus, 2. 
Cochlear, is, 3, n. 
Cochlearia, 1. 
Codeina, 1. 
Coffea, 1. 
Colatura, 1. 
Colchicum, 2. 
Collinsonia, 1. 
Collodium, 2. 
Collutorium, 2. 
Collyrium, 2. 
Colocynthis, idis, 3, /. 
Columbo, indecl. 
Communis, e, 3 ; adj. 
Compositus, a, um ; adj. 
Concentratus, a, um ; adj. 
Concisus, a, um ; adj. 
Confectio, onis, 3, /.; or 

Confectum, 2. 
Congius, 2. 
Conium, 2. 

Contusus, a, um; adj. 
Convallaria, 1. 
Copaiba, 1. 
Coptis, idis, 3, /. 
Coriandrum, 2. 
Coriaria, 1. 
Cornus, us, 4, /. 
Corrosivus, a, um; adj. 
Cortex, icis, 3, m. 
Corydalis, is, 3, /. 
Coto, indecl. 
Cotula, 1. 
Cremor, oris, 3, m. 
Creosotum, 2. 
Creta, 1. 
Crocus, 2. 



Croton, onis, 3, m. 
Crudus, a, um; adj. 
Cubeba, 1. 
Cuprum, 2. 
Curare, indecl. 
Curcuma, 1. 
Cyanidum, 2. 
Cydonium, 2. 
Cypripedium, 2. 
Damiana, 1. 
Datura, 1. 
Dancus, 2, /. 
Decigramma, 1. 
Decimetrum, 2. 
Decoctum, 2 ; or 

Decoetio, onis, 3, /. 
Delphinium, 2. 
Deodoratus, a, um. ; adj. 
Denarcotisatus, a, um; adj. 
Depuratus, a, um ; adj. 
Despumatus, a, um; adj. 
Destillatus, a, um ; adj. 
Dextrinum, 2. 
Diachylon, 2. 
Dialysatus, a, um; adj. 
Dies, ei, 5, m. or /. 
Digitalina, 1. 
Digitalis, is, 3, /. 
Dilutus, a, um ; adj. 
Dimidius, a, um; adj. 
Dioseorea, 1. 
Diospyros, 2. 
Dipterix, igis, 3, /. 
Dita, 1. 
Dosis, is, 3, /. 
Dover us, 2. 
Drachma, 1. 
Dracontium, 2. 
Dragmis, is, 3, /. 
Duboisia, 1. 
Dulcamara, 1. 
Dulcis, e, 3 ; adj. 
Effervescens, entis, 3 ; adj. 
Elaterium, 2. 
Elaterinum, 2. 
Elseosaceharum, 2. 
Electuarium, 2. 
Elemi, indecl. 
Elixir, iris, 3, n. 
Emplastrum, 2. 
Emulsio, onis, 3, /. 
Enema, atis, 3, n. 
Ergota, 1. 
Ergotina, 1. 
Erigeron, ontis, 3, m. 
Eriodyction, 2. 
Erythroxylon, 2. 
Eucalyptus, 2, m. or /. 



LANGUAGE 



113 



Euonymus, 2. 
Eupatorium, 2. 
Euphorbia, 1. 
Euphorbium, 2. 
Expressus, a, um; adj. 
Exsiccatus, a, um ; adj. 
Extractum, 2. 
Faba, 1. 
Farina, 1. 

Farinosus, a, um; adj. 
Fel, fellis, 3, n. 
Fermentum, 2. 
Ferratus, a, um ; adj. 
Ferricus, a, um; adj. 
Ferrocyanidum, 2. 
Ferrosus, a, um ; adj. 
Ferrum, 2. 

Fervidus, a, um ; adj. 
Fieus, 2 or 4, /. 
Filix, icis, 3, /. 
Fistula, 1. 
Flavus, a, um; adj. 
Flexilis, e, 3; adj. 
Florentinus, a, um; adj. 
Floridus, a, um; adj. 
Flos, floris, 3, m. 
Fluidrachma, 1. 
Fluiduncia, 1. 
Fluidus, a, um; adj. 
Fluigramma, 1. 
Foeniculum, 2. 
Foetidus, a, um; adj. 
Folium, 2. 

Fontanus, a, um; adj. 
Fortis, e, 3; adj. 
Fowlerus, 2. 
Frangula, 1. 
Frankenia, 1. 
Frasera, 1. 
Fructus, us, 4, m. 
Frumentum, 2. 
Fuligo, inis, 3, /. 
Fungus, 2. 
Fuscus, a, um; adj. 
Fusus, a, um ; adj. 
Galanga, 1. 
Galbanum, 2. 
Galla, 1. 

Gallieus, a, um; adj. 
Gambogia, 1. 
Gargarisma, atis, 3, n. 
Gaultheria, 1. 
Gelatina, 1. 
Gelsemium, 2. 
Gemma, 1. 
Gentiana, 1. 
Geranium, 2. 
Geum, 2. 



Gillenia, 1. 
Glabrus, a, um; adj. 
Glacialis, e, 3 ; adj. 
Glucosa, 1. 
Glyeerinum, 2. 
Glyceritum, 2. 
Glycyrrhiza, 1. 
Glycyrrhizinum, 2. 
Gossypium, 2. 
Goulardus, 2. 
Gramen, inis, 3, n. 
Gramma, 1; or 

Gramma, atis, 3, n. 
Granatum, 2. 
Granulatus, a, um ; adj. 
Granulum, 2. 
Granum, 2. 
Grindelia, 1. 
Guaeo, mdecl. 
Guaiacum, 2. 
Guarana, 1. 
Gummi, mdecl. . 

Gummigutta, 1. 
Gutta, 1. 

Gutta-percha, se, 1. 
Hsematoxylon, 2. 
Heemostaticus, a, um; adj. 
Hamamelis, idis, 3, /. 
Haustum, 2; or 

Haustus, us, 4, m. 
Hedeoma, 1. 
Helenium, 2. 
Heliantliemum, 2. 
Helleborus, 2. 
Helonias, ae, 1, /. 
Hepatica, 1. 
Herba, 1. 
Heuchera, 1. 
Hippocastanum, 2. 
Hirudo, inis, 3, /. 
Hoffmannus, 2. 
Hordeum, 2. 
Humulus, 2. 
Hydrargyrum, 2. 
Hydras, atis, 3, in. 
Hydrastina, 1. 
Hydrastis, is, 3, /. 
Hydratus, a, um; adj. 
Hydriodas, atis, 3, m. 
Hydriodicus, a, um; adj. 
Hydrobromas, atis, 3, m. 
Hydrobromicus, a, um; adj. 
Hydrochloras, atis, 3, m. 
Hydrochloricus, a, um; adj. 
Hydrocyanieus, a, um; adj. 
Hydrogenium, 2. 
Hyoscyamina, 1. 
Hyoseyamus, 2. 



114 



THE PRESCRIPTION 



Hypophosphis, itis, m. 
Hyposulphis, itis, m. 
Hyssopus, 2. 
Ichthyocolla, 1. 
Idaeus, a, um ; adj. 
Ignatia, 1. 
Illicium, 2. 
Imperatoria, 1. 
Impurus, a, um ; adj. 
Incarnatus, a, um ; adj. 
Indicus, a, um ; adj. 
Indigo, indecl. 
Infusum, 2 ; or 

Infusio, onis, 3, /. 
Inhalatio, onis, 3, /. ; ov 

Inhalatus, us, 4, m. 
Injectio, onis, 3, /.; or 

Injectus, us, 4, m. 
Inspissatus, a, um ; adj. 
Inula, 1. 

Iodatus, a, um ; adj. 
Iodidum, 2. 
Iodinium, 2. 
Iodoform um, 2. 
lodum, 2. 
Ipecacuanha, 1. 
Iris, idis, 3, /. 
Islandicus, a, um ; adj. 
Jaborandi, indecl. 
Jalapa, 1. 
Jecur, oris, 3, n. 
Juglans, andis, 3, /. 
Juniperus, 2, /. 
Kali, indecl. , n. 
Kalium, 2. 
Kamala, 1. 
Kava Kava, indecl. 
Kino, indecl. 
Koumiss, indecl. 
Kousso, indecl. 
Krameria, 1. 
Lac, lactis, 3, n. 
Lactas, atis, 3, m. 
Lacticus, a, um ; adj. 
Lactuca, 1. 
Lactucarium, 2. 
Lagena, 1. 
Laminaria, 1. 
Lanolinum, 2. 
Laudanum, 2. 
Lapis, idis, 3, m. 
Lappa, 1. 

Laurocerasus, 2, /. 
Laurus, 2, or 4, /. 
Lavamentum, 2. 
Lavandula, 1. 
Lavatura, 1. 
Leonurus, 2. 



Leptandra, 1. 
Levisticum, 2. 
Lex, legis, 3, /. 
Libra, 1. 
Libitum, 2. 
Lichen, inis, 3, m. 
Lignum, 2. 
Limatura, ] . 
Limon, is, 3, /. 
Limonia, 1. 
Linctus, us, 4, »!. 
Linimentum, 2. 
Linum, 2. 

Liquidus, a, um ; adj. 
Liquiritia, 1. 
Liquor, oris, 3, m. 
Liriodendron, 2. 
Lithium, 2. 
Lobelia, 1. 
Lotio, onis, 3, /. 
Lotus, a, um ; adj. 
Lupulinum, 2. 
Lupulus, 2. 
Lycopodium, 2. 
Lycopus, odis, 3 ; or 2, m. 
Lytta, 1. 
Macis, idis, 3, /. 
Madeirensis, e, 3 ; adj. 
Magma, atis, 3, m. 
Magnesia, 1. 
Magnesium, 2. 
Magnolia, 1. 
Maltum, 2. 
Manganum, 2. 
Mangostana, 1. 
Manna, 1. 
Manzanita, 1. 
Maranta, 1. 

Marilandicus, a, um ; adj. 
Marrubium, 2. 
Mas, aris, 3, m. 
Massa, 1. 
Mastiche, es, 1, /. 
Matico, indecl. 
Matricaria, 1. 
Mays, dis, 3, /.; or 

Mais, indecl. 
Medulla, 1. 
Mel, mellis, 3, n. 
Melilotus, 2. 
Melissa, 1. 
Mellitum, 2. 
Melo, onis, 3, /. 
Menispermum, 2. 
Mentha, 1. 
Menthol, is, 3, m. 
Menyanthes, •<?, 1, /. 
Methysticum, 2. 



LANGUAGE 



115 



Metrum, 2. 

Mezereum, 2. 

Mica, 1. 

Micromeria, 1. 

Mikania, 1. 

Millefolium, 2. 

Milligramma, 1. 

Millimetrum, 2. 

Mindererus, 2. 

Minimum, 2. 

Mistura, 1. 

Mitchella, 1. 

Mitis, e, 3; adj. 

Monarda, 1. 

Monesia, 1. 

Monobromatus, a, urn ; adj. 

Morphia, 1. 

Morphina, 1. 

Morrhua, 1. 

Mo rum, 2. 

Mosehus, 2. 

Moxa, 1. 

Mueilago, inis, 3, /. 

Mucuna, 1. 

Murias, atis, 3, m. 

Muriaticus, a, um ; adj. 

Myrcia, 1. 

Myriea, 1. 

Myristica, 1. 

Myrotheca, 1. 

Myrrha, 1. 

Narcotina, 1. 

Natrium, 2. 

Natronatus, a, um; adj. 

Nectandra, 1. 

Nicotina, 1. 

Niger, gra, grum ; adj. 

(Gen. of niger is nigri.) 
Nitras, atis, 3, m. 
Nitrieus, a, um ; adj. 
Nitris, itis, 3, m. 
Nitrohydrochloricus, a, um ; adj. 
Nitromuriaticus, a, um; adj. 
Nitrosus, a, um ; adj. 
Nux, nucis, 3, /. 
Nymphaea, 1. 
Octarius, 2. 
Odoratus, a, um ; adj. 
Oleas, atis, 3, m. 
Oleatum, 2. 
Oleoresina, 1. 
Oleum, 2. 
Oliva, 1. 
Olla, 1. 
Opium, 2. 
Opodeldoc, indecl. 
Optimus, a, um; adj. 
Opulus, 2, /. 



Oregoncnsis, e, 3 ; adj. 

Origanum, 2. 

Oryza, 1. 

Os, ossis, 3, n. 

Ovum, 2. 

Oxalas, atis, 3, m. 

Oxalicus, a, Won ; adj. 

Oxidum, 2. 

Oxycroceus, a, um ; adj. 

Oxymel, mellis, 3, n.; or 

Oxymeli, itis, 3, n. 
Pallidus, a, um; adj. 
Pancreatinum, 2. 
Panis, is, 3, m. 
Papaver, eris, 3, n. 
Papaya, 1. 
Paraffinum, 2. 
Paregoricum, 2. 
Pareira, 1. 
Pars, partis, 3, /. 
Parvulum, 2. 
Pasma, atis, 3, n. 
Passa, 1. 
Pastilla, 1. 
Paullinia, 1. 
Pauper, eris, 3 ; adj. 
Pepo, onis, 3, m. 
Pepsinum, 2. 
Perf oratus, a, um ; adj. 
Permanganas, atis, 3, w. 
Peroxidum, 2. 
Peruvianus, a, um ; adj. 
Pessarium, 2 ; or 

Pessum, 2. 
Petrolatum, 2. 
Petroleum, 2. 
Petroselinum, 2. 
Phiala, 1. 
Phoradendron, 2. 
Phosplias, atis, 3, m. 
Phosphis, itis, 3, m. 
Phosphoratus, a, um ; adj. 
Pliosplioricus, a, um ; adj. 
Phosphorus, 2. 
Physostigma, atis, 3, n. 
Physostigmina, 1. 
Phytolacca, 1. 
Picricus, a, um ; adj. 
Picrotoxinum, 2. 
Pilocarpina, 1. 
Pilocarpus, 2. 
Pimenta, 1. 
Pinus, 2 or 4, /. 
Piper, eris, 3, n. 
Piperina, 1. 
Piperitus, a, um ; adj. 
Piscidia, 1. 
Pix, picis, 3, /. 



116 



THE PRESCRIPTION 



Plumbum, 2. 
Podophyllinum, 2. 
Podophyllum, 2. 
Pollen, inis, 3, n. 
Polygala, 1. 
Polygonum, 21 
Polypodium, 2. 
Pomatum, 2. 
Pomatus, a, um ; adj. 
Populus, 2, /. 
Porous, 2. 

Portensis, e, 3 ; adj. 
Potassa, 1. 
Potassium, 2. 
Potio, onis, 3, /.; or 

Potus, us, 4, in. 
Praecipitatus, a, um ; adj. 
Praeparatus, a, um ; adj. 
Praescriptum, 2 ; or 

Praeseriptio, onis, 3, /. 
Precatorius, a, um; adj. 
Prinos, 2. 
Propylamina, 1. 
Protochloridum, 2. 
Protoiodidum, 2. 
Prunifolius, a, um; adj. 
Prunum, 2. 
Prunus, 2, /. 
Ptelea, 1. 
Pulpa, 1. 
Pulsatilla, 1. 
Pulvis, eris, 3, m. or /. 
Puriftcatus, a, um ; adj. 
Purus, a, um; adj. 
Pyrethrum, 2. 
Pyrogallicus, a, um ; adj. 
Pyrolignicus, a, um; adj. 
Pyrophosplias, atis, 3 ; m. 
Pyrophosphoricus, a, um; a<7/. 
Pyroxylinum, 2 ; or 

Pyroxylon, 2. 
Quassia, 1. 
Quebracho, indecl. 
Quercus, us, 4, /. 
Quillaia, 1. 
Quinia, 1. 
Quinidia, 1. 
Quinina, 1. 

Quinquefolius, a, um; adj. 
Radix, ieis, 3, /. 
Ranunculus, 2. 
Recens, ntis, 3 ; adj. 
Receptum, 2. 
Rectificatus, a, um ; adj. 
Redactus, a, um ; adj. 
Resina, 1. 

Rhamnus, 2, /. or m. 
Rhatanha, 1. 



Rheum, 2. 

Rhus, rhois, m. or /. 

Ricinus, 2. 

Roob, is, 3, n.j or 

Roob, indecl. 
Rosa, 1. 
Rosmarinus, 2. 
Rottlera, 1. 
Rotula, 1. 
Rubella, 1. 
Ruber, bra, brum; adj. 

(Gen. of ruber is rubri.) 
Rubia, 1. 
Rubus, 2. 

Rumex, icis, 3, in. or /. 
Ruta, 1. 
Sabadilla, 1. 
Sabbatia, 1. 
Sabina, 1. 

Saccharatus, a, um ; adj. 
Saccharum, 2. 
Sago, indecl. 
Sal, salis, 3, n. or m. 
Salep, indecl. 
Salicylas, atis, 3, m. 
Salicylicus, a, um; adj. 
Salicinum, 2. 
Salix, icis, 3, /. 
Salvia, 1. 
Sambucus, 2, /. 
Sanguinaria, 1. 
Santalum, 2. 
Santonica, 1. 
Santoninas, atis, 3, m. 
Santoninum, 2. 
Sapo, onis, 3, in. 
Sarsaparilla, 1. 
Sassafras, indecl. 
Sativus, a, um; adj. 
Saturatio, onis, 3, /. 
Scammonium, 2. 
Scatula, 1. 
Scilla, 1. 
Scoparius, 2. 
Serupulus, 2. 
Scutellaria, 1. 
Secale, is, 3, n. 
Sedimentum, 2. 
Semen, inis, 3, n. 
Semidrachma, 1. 
Semissis, e, 3 ; adj. 
Senega, 1. 
Senna, 1. 

Sericus, a, um; adj. 
Sericum, 2. 
Serpentaria, 1. 
Serrulatus, a, um; adj. 
Sesamum, 2. 



LANGUAGE 



117 



Sesquichloridum, 2. 
Sevum, 2. 
Simaruba, 1. 
Simplex, icis, 3 ; adj. 
Sinapis, is, 3, /. 
Socotrinus, a, um ; adj. 
Soda, 1. 
Sodium, 2. 
Solidago, inis, 3, /. 
Solubilis, e, 3 ; adj. 
Solutio, onis, 3, /. 
Sparadrapum, 2. 
Species, ierum, pi., 5, /. 
Spermaceti, indecl. 
Spigelia, 1. 
Spiraea, 1. 
Spiritus, us, 4, m. 
Spongia, 1. 
Statice, es, 1, /. 
Stibium, 2. 
Stigma, atis, 3, n. 
Stillingia, 1. 
Stramonium, 2. 
Strychnia, 1. 
Strychnina, 1. 
Stypticus, a, um ; adj. 
Styrax, acis, '3, m. or /. 
Subacetas, atis, 3, m. 
Subcarbonas, atis, 3, m. 
Sublimatus, a, um; adj. 
Subnitras, atis, 3, m. 
Subsulphas, atis, 3, m. 
Succinum, 2. 
Succus, 2. 
Sulphas, atis, 3, m. 
Sulphis, itis, 3, m. 
Sulphocarbolas, atis, 3, m. 
Sulphur, is, 3, n. 
Sulphuratus, a, um ; adj. 
Sulphuretus, a, um; adj. 
Sulphuricus, a, um ; adj. 
Sulphurosus, a, um; adj. 
Sumbul, indecl. 
Strppositorium, 2. 
Syriacus, a, um ; adj. 
Syrinx, ngis, 3, /. 
Syrupus, 2. 
Tabacum, 2. 
Tabella, 1. 
Tamarindus, 2. 
Tanacetum, 2. 
Tannicus, a, um ; adj. 
Tanninum, 2. 
Tapioca, 1. 
Taraxacum, 2. 
Tartaricus, a, um ; adj. 
Tartras, atis, 3, m. 
Tepidus, a, um; adj. 



Terebinthina, 1. 

Tersulphas, atis, 3, m. 

Testa, 1. 

Thea, 1. 

Thebaicus, a, um ; adj. 

Theina, 1. 

Theobroma, atis, 3, n. 

Theriaca, 1. 

Thuja, 1. 

Thymol, is, 3, m.; or 

Thymolum, 2. 
Thymus, 2. 
Tiglium, 2. 
Tilia, 1. 

Tinctorius, a, um; adj. 
Tinctura, 1. 
Tolu, indecl. 
Tolutanus, a um; adj. 
Tonco, indecl. 
Tonga, 1. 
Tormentilla, 1. 
Tostus, a, um ; adj. 
Toxicodendron, 2. 
Tragacantha, 1. 
Trifolium, 2. 
Trillium, 2. 
Triosteum, 2. 
Triticum, 2. , 
Trituratio, onis, 3, /. 
Trochiscus, 2. 
Truncus, 2. 
Tuber, eris, 3, n. 
Tuberosus, a, um; adj. 
Tussilago, inis, 3, /. 
Ulmus, 2, /. 
TJncia, 1. 
Unguentum, 2 ; or 

TJnguen, inis, 3, n. 
Urari, indecl. 
Ursus, 2. 
Urtica, 1. 

TJstilago, inis, 3, /. 
Ustus, a, um; adj. 
Uva, 1. 
Valeriana, 1. 
Valerianas, atis, 3, m. 
Valerianicus, a, um; adj. 
Vanilla, 1. 
Vaselinum, 2. 
Vegetabilis, e, 3 ; adj. 
Venalis, e, 3 ; adj. 
Veratria, 1. 
Veratrina, 1. 
Veratrum, 2. 
Verbascum, 2. 
Veronica, 1. 

Versicolor, oris, 3 ; adj. 
Vesicatorius, a, um; adj. 



118 



THE PRESCRIPTION 



Vesicatorium, 2. 
Vesiculosus. a, um ; adj. 
Viburnum, 2. 
Viola, 1. 
Vinum, 2. 

Virginianrs, a, urn ; adj. 
Virginicus a, um ; adj. 
Viridis, e, 3 ; adj. 
Virosus, a, um ; adj. 
Viscum, 2. 
Vitellum, 2. 
Vitrum, 2. 
Volatilis, e, 3 ; adj. 
Vomicus, a, um ; aij. 
Vulgaris, e, 3 ; adj. 
Vulnerarius, a, um; adj. 
Warburgus, 2. 



Wintera, 1. 
Woorari, indecl.; or 

Woorali, indecl. 
Xanthorrhiza, 1. 
Xanthoxylum, 2. 
Xerieus, a, um ; adj. 
Xerium, 2. 
Yerba Buena, 1.* 
Terba Mansa, l.~" 
Tcrba Beum-a, l.~ 
Terba Santa, 1.* 
Zea, 1. 
Zedoaria, 1. 

Zeylanicus, a, um; adj. 
Zingiber, eris, 3, n. 
Zincum, 2. 
Zizyphus, 2, /. 



Verbs. 



But few verbs are used in prescriptions, and these, with few ex- 
ceptions, only in the imperative mood, so that it is not necessary 
to describe the conjugations at all, and it will be sufficient to merely 
mention the verbs in the forms in which they are used. The fol- 
lowing list includes the most important. The number after the 
verb refers to the number of the conjugation : 

Adde. — Active voice, imperative mood, present tense, and singu- 
lar number of the verb addo, 3. It means "add," and is fol- 
lowed by the accusative case. 

Cola. — Active voice, imperative mood, present tense, and singu- 
lar number of the verb colo, 1. It means "strain." 

Consperge. — Active voice, imperative mood, present tense, and 
singular number, of the verb conspergo, 3. It means "sprinkle," 
and is used, for example, in prescriptions for pills, to designate the 
powder with which the pills are to be rolled. It is an active verb, 
and its object (the thing to be sprinkled) is placed in the accusa- 
tive case, followed by the ablative of the substance with which it is 
sprinkled. In prescriptions, however, the object is generally 
omitted or understood, and the verb is followed by the ablative of 
the conspergative. In English we might say "sprinkle the pills 
with lycopodium," or "sprinkle lycopodium on the pills." In 
Latin the first form is generally used, and we would write "con- 
sperge pilulas hjcopodio," or "consperge (pihdas understood) 



*These are Spanish names, both words of which are either treated in prescriptions 
like L,atin words of the first declension, or may be considered indeclinable. 



LANGUAGE 119 

lycopodio." In the last form the verb is, of course, only appar- 
ently followed by the ablative. 

Da. — Active voice, imperative mood, present tense, and singular 
number of the verb do, 1. It means "give." 

Dolus, a, um. — Participial adjective of the same verb; means 
' ' given. ' ' 

Detur, singular; and 

Dentur, plural. — Passive voice, subjunctive mood, present tense, 
third person, singular and plural respectively, of the same verb. 
These words mean "let — be given." The subject, or thing to be 
given is placed in the nominative, singular or plural as the case 
may be. 

Divide. — Active voice, imperative mood, present tense, and singu- 
lar number of the verb divido, 3. It means ' ' divide, ' ' and is usually 
followed by the preposition in and the accusative case. 

Fiat, singular; and 

Fiant, plural. — The verb fio is an irregular passive verb, active 
in form, but passive in meaning. It is used as the passive of facio, 
3, I make. It, therefore, means, "I am made," or, in the infinitive, 
"to be made." The forms in which it is used are the subjunctive 
mood, present tense, and third person, singular and plural. The 
thing or things to be made are placed in the nominative case. 
Fiat and fiant mean "let — be made," the dash meaning the 
proper subject, singular or plural, as the case may be ; thus : fiat 
emulsio means "let an emulsion be made;" fiant pilulas XII means 
"let twelve pills be made." 

Misce. — Active voice, imperative mood, present tense, and singu- 
lar number of the verb misceo, 2. It means "mix." 

Misceantur. — Passive voice, subjunctive mood, present tense, third 
person, and plural number of the verb misceo, 2. It means "let 
(them) be mixed." 

Obducantur. — Passive voice, subjunctive mood, present tense, 
third person, plural number of the verb obduco, 3. The word means 
"let (them) be coated," and is used in formulas for pills. The sub- 
stance with which the pills are to be coated is put in the ablative ; 
for instance: Pilulce foliis awri obducantur, let the pills be coated 
with goldleaf (literally, with leaves of gold). 

Recipe. — Active voice, imperative mood, present tense, and singu- 



120 THE PRESCRIPTION 

lar number of the verb recipio, 3. Means "take," and is followed 
by the accusative of the thing or things to be taken. 

Repete. — Active voice, imperative mood, present tense, and singu- 
lar number of the verb repeto, 3. It means "repeat" or "renew," 
and is followed by the accusative. The subjunctive of this verb 
is used when the physician wants to forbid refilling a prescription ; 
thus ; ne repetatur, it is not to be repeated. 

Signa. — Active voice, imperative mood, present tense, and singu- 
lar number of the verb signo, 1. It means "label." 

Solve. — Active voice, imperative mood, present tense, and singu- 
lar number of the verb solvo, 3. It means "dissolve." 

Tere. — Active voice, imperative mood, present tense, and singular 
number of the verb tero, 3. It means "rub" or "triturate." 

To recapitulate, we have the following table of verbs and the 
usual abbreviations in parentheses, followed by the meaning in 
English. Where no abbreviation is given, it means that the word 
is usually written out in full. 

LATIN. ENGLISH. 

Adde add. 

Cola strain. 

Consperge (consp.) sprinkle. 

Da (d.) give. 

Betur (d.) let (it) be given. 

Dentur (d.) let (them) be given. 

Divide (div.) divide. 

Fiat (ft.) let (it) be made. 

Fiant (ft.) let (them) be made. 

Misce (m.) mix. 

Misceawtur (m.) let (them) be mixed. 

Ooducantur let (them) be coated. 

Eecipe (T&) take. 

"Repete repeat ; renew. 

Signa (s.) label. 

Solve dissolve. 

Tere rub ; triturate. 

Adverbs. 

Ana, usually written aa, means "of each." When equal quan- 
tities of several consecutive ingredients of a prescription are to 
be dispensed, this adverb is placed after the name of the last of 
these ingredients and before the quantity. 



LANGUAGE 121 

Quantum satis, usually abbreviated to q. s., consists of two ad- 
verbs, quantum ("as much as") and satis ("enough"), both to- 
gether meaning "as much as will suffice," or "as much as may 
be necessary," or simply "enough." Sometimes q. s. is said to be 
"quantum sufficit" (not sufficiat) , which, however, means the 
same thing, sufficit being a verb meaning "it suffices." It will be 
simplest always to read q- s. as quantum satis. The name of the 
drug must be in the genitive. 

The use of q. s. will be considered further on. 

Parts op Prescription. 

The prescription is divided into several parts, each of which is 
distinct from the others. These parts are: First, the superscrip- 
tion, or order to "take," usually consisting of the sign I£ ; second, 
the inscription, or enumeration of the ingredients; third, the sub- 
scription, or directions to the pharmacist how to compound; and 
fourth, the signature, or direction for labeling. 

"We will consider these parts more in detail a little further on. 

Construction of Prescription. 

To recapitulate in regard to the grammatical form of the pre- 
scription, we remark that it commences with the imperative "take" 
(ty), which is followed by the genitive of the name of the sub- 
stance and the accusative of the quantity, thus : 

Superscription — IJ . 

Inscription — ■ Remedy (gen.). Quantity (ace). 

(Eepeat for each ingredient.) 
Subscription — Misce (etc.). 
Signature — Signa (etc.). 

It is to be remembered, however, that only the nominatives of an 
official or pharmaceutical name are to be changed to the genitive, 
all other words of the official names remaining unchanged, as, 
for instance, if we order hydrargyrum cum creta, only the first 
word is changed to the genitive, the ablative creta following cum 
remaining as it is. Moreover, the nominative of the official title 
is changed to the genitive only when a certain quantity (grains, 
drams, ounces, grams, etc.) is ordered. 

When no quantity, but a certain number, is ordered, as occa- 
sionally in prescriptions for pills or troches, etc., the number is 



122 THE PRESCRIPTION 

expressed by a numeral adjective, and the object of the verb 
recipe then is the substance or remedy which must accordingly be 
placed in the accusative case, as when we write. 

R Pilulas catharticas, viii. 
Signa, etc. 

"We may have both constructions in the same prescription, as. 
for instance : 

IJ Chlorof ormi, f3 i. 

Olei morrhuae, f§ i. 

Yitellum ovi, i. 

Syrupi sacchari, f'S i. 

Aquam puram, ad f 3 vi. 

Misce. Fiat emulsio. Signa. 

It will be noticed that when a quantity is ordered, the nomina- 
tive of the title of the remedy is changed to the genitive ; otherwise 
the nominative changes to the accusative, as when one yolk of egg 
is ordered or when enough water is prescribed to make 6 fluid- 
ounces. 

Nomenclature. 

In constructing the nomenclature of any science, one object 
should be to convey as much information as possible in the names 
adopted. In botany, for instance, Ave find names of genera which 
convey certain ideas concerning the plant. Digitalis is a name de- 
rived from the Latin word digitus — a finger — and the name as ap- 
plied to the plant refers to the thimble-like shape of the flower. 
The English word foxglove, and the German word fingerliut, have 
similar significance, and other languages have words of like mean- 
ing. It need not, however, be supposed that these names have 
been independently invented by persons in different countries, 
but they probably are all derived from the conceit of the first 
one who gave the Latin name. Or the name may suggest the his- 
tory of the plant, as is the case with cinchona, which is named in 
honor of the Countess of Chinchon, and the name recalls all of the 
romantic history of the conquest of Peru to anyone who has ever 
read about it. Or the plants are named in honor of great men, as 
" "Wellingtonia, " "Tradescantia," etc. Often it is the specific 
name which gives the desired information: Cinchona macrocahjcis, 
cinchona with the large calyx; Digitalis purpurea, the purple-col- 



LANGUAGE 123 

ored digitalis; Cassia acutifolia, cassia with the acutely pointed 
leaf, etc. Among animals the Pliyseter macroceplialus, the big- 
headed whale, may serve as an example of the same general truth. 

Who that has studied chemistry does not know that the names 
of chemicals convey the knowledge of their composition ; that a 
sulphate, for instance, is a compound of a base with sulphuric acid. 
And so in every branch of science, in proportion as it approaches 
perfection its nomenclature becomes more exact, and the science 
is more' easily mastered by the student. 

It is true that occasionally names become attached to certain 
things, and that it is afterwards difficult to change the names when 
they cease to convey correct information. For example, Oidium 
abortifaciens — literally, the abortion-making oidium — was so named 
because it was thought to be the cause of the abortion of the ovule 
of rye and the production of ergot. Now we know that it has noth- 
ing to do with the formation of the ergot, and,, besides, the latter is 
not an aborted rye grain at all, so that the specific name is wrong 
in all its parts, but it still continues to be used. 

In other cases the names change as knowledge advances. 
Cinchona was first known as pulvis de la comtessa, because the 
Countess of Chinchon introduced it to the notice of the old world ; 
as pulvis patrum or pulvis Jesuiiicus, because first sold by the 
Jesuit fathers. A certain variety is even to this day spoken .of as 
' ' Crown Bark, ' ' because it was considered a couple of centuries 
ago to be the best bark, and its sale was a prerogative of the Span- 
ish crown. But these names gradually fell into disuse as the knowl- 
edge in regard to this drug and its sources widened. It seems to 
me that some of the principles which govern the development of 
scientific nomenclature in other branches of human thought and 
activity might well be applied to our pharmaceutical nomenclature, 
which is now lamentably imperfect. For instance, the present 
pharmaeopoeial name Iris conveys no information at all. The 
name does not tell us what the drug is, or from Avhat it is derived ; 
whether it is a root, rhizoma, leaves, flowers, or what else. And 
moreover, it does not refer to the same drug Iris which was for- 
merly used. The name should, as far as possible, give us the 
above information. 

In the Pharmacopoeia of 1870 extractum aconiti meant an extract 
of the leaves, while in that of 1880 the same name means an extract 



124 THE PRESCRIPTION 

of the root. When a physician who is behind the times prescribes 
this preparation he possibly means the extract of aconite leaves, 
and if it comes to be dispensed by a pharmacist who is up with the 
times he ought to, and probably will, dispense the extract of aconite 
root, and the patient takes five times as strong a dose as was in- 
tended, and possibly dies a victim to imperfect nomenclature. 

The United States Pharmacopoeia simply ignores all remedies not 
contained in itself, and bases its nomenclature on the idea that 
only that part of a plant is used which it recognizes. As a matter 
of fact, however, the part recognized by the Pharmacopoeia is often 
not the part of the plant most generally employed, as we see in 
Calendula. At first this meant the flowers, then it meant the herb 
or flowering tops; but, although the herb was official, the flowers 
continued to be commonly employed; the U.S.P., 19"00, reintro- 
duced the flowers. But the title Calendula was the same all this 
time. 

All modern systems of pharmacognosy are based on the struc- 
tural characteristics of the drugs, and these should, therefore, be 
the base for our nomenclature. When we speak of rhubarb, for 
example, the name should tell us that the drug is the root, and 
so on. But it becomes an ' interesting question for discussion 
whether we should say radix rliei or rJiei radix, or whether we 
should use the singular radix or the plural radices; also, whether 
the singular or plural of the origin of the drug shall be used in 
such names as oleum olivm or oleum olivarum, etc. The question 
in regard to plural or singular has been settled by common con- 
sent in favor of the singular, and, as this is no doubt correct 
practice, we will not stop to discuss it now. But something may 
be said in regard to the precedence of words in the title. Shall 
the plant name be first and the plant part second, or vice versa? 
This question involves some points of interest to which it may be 
well to devote a few words of discussion. It involves, in the first 
place, the consideration of the idiomatic construction of languages. 
In French we say, for instance, "une femme charmante" — a woman 
charming — while in English we say, "a charming woman." 

If we analyze the mental process of the conveyance of ideas by 
means of words, it seems that the French method is not as good 
as the English. Thought is practically instantaneous and so rapid 
in its action that often a person who supposes himself to be 



LANGUAGE 125 

drowning reviews his whole life, with all its good and evil deeds, 
in the few seconds of submersion before he is rescued. Therefore, 
when the Frenchman says "the woman charming" the mind, 
hearing the word "woman" (femme), may think of the structural 
and physiological features which constitute the woman, and may 
think of all kinds of women, of all times and all nations, from 
Xantippe to Florence Nightingale, and from the naked Papuan to 
the brilliant society queen, before the following word (charmante) 
calls the mind back to the idea conveyed by that word, and all 
the other involuntary and irrelevant mental suggestions must be 
eliminated in order to limit the idea to the conception of one kind 
of woman only — the charming woman. In English or German, 
on the other hand, the adjective conjures up an abstract idea, and 
when the noun follows, the total idea is much more clearly defined, 
and the ideas are impressed with a vigor aiid clearness that seem 
to be impossible with the French construction. 

Now, apply this to our drugs. Shall we say radix rliei, or rlici 
radix? 

Radix rJiei is the French construction in effect. The mention 
of the word radix suggests so many facts regarding structure, etc., 
that it takes an effort of the mind to limit the idea to the concep- 
tion of the single root derived from rhubarb. On the other hand, 
rhei radix will suggest rhubarb alone to the mind, and it is no ef- 
fort at all to form an idea of the root of that plant alone. Our 
nomenclature should, therefore, include the name of the part of 
the plant, and such names as aconiti radix, sennce folium, arnica 1 , 
flos, maydis stigma, cinchona cortex, would be preferable to radix 
aconiti, folium sennce, etc. 

Another advantage gained by a nomenclature constructed as 
above explained is, that if we know the name of the plant we can 
find references in the dispensatories, etc., in alphabetical order, 
and if the names of the preparations arc constructed in the same 
manner we gain the advantage that the description of the drug, 
and of all of its preparations will be found in one place, and in 
alphabetical order. 

For instance, referring to aconiti radix, we will find abstract, ex- 
tract, fluid extract, liniment, tincture, etc., all together. A mere 
glance will tell the physician not only that it is aconite, but that it 
is the root of aconite, and it will also suggest all the different forms 



126 THE PRESCRIPTION 

in which he may prescribe it. The name suggests volumes of in- 
formation, and both pharmacists and physicians must become bet- 
ter acquainted with the materia medica. If a glance at the 
Pharmacopoeia will give all this information, it becomes desirable 
that every physician should have a copy of that work. With the 
present nomenclature and arrangement, the Pharmacopoeia is of 
comparatively little use to the doctor. 

When their knowledge of materia medica is increased, physicians 
will prescribe more simples, and the arts of prescribing and com- 
pounding will receive an impetus which they can not receive in 
any other manner. The unfamiliarity of physicians with the arti- 
cles of the materia medica and with the preparations accounts for 
many of the unsatisfactory conditions of both of the medical pro- 
fessions. 

Since a proper nomenclature will aid in a better knowledge of 
pharmacognosy and pharmacy, it is certainly desirable that pharma- 
ceutical nomenclature should be made commensurate with the ad- 
vancements of our professions in other matters. 

Latin Nomenclature. 

A short explanation of the Latinity of the various pharmacopoeias 
will be of interest. It is often remarked upon, that there is con- 
siderable dissimilarity between the Latin names of drugs, titles of 
preparations, etc., in different countries, and some seem to think 
that the Latin of all can not be right ; that some must be wrong. 
But such an idea is based on the assumption that Latin, being a 
"dead" language, is so fixed in its rules and vocabulary as to 
make variations impossible; in other words, on the assumption 
that if the nomenclature of the United States Pharmacopoeia is 
correct, that of the German Pharmacopoeia must be incorrect, or 
vice versa. Nothing can well be farther from the truth than such 
an idea. Latin, as applied in science, is not a dead language, ex- 
cept as to its grammar, but it is very much alive and with great 
flexibility and adaptability to any use required in every other 
respect. 

In classical Latin, (the Latin of Cicero and Sallust) "when one 
noun qualifies another noun and is not an appositive, and does 
not mean tlie same tiling, it is an attributive noun, and is put in 
the genitive." 



LANGUAGE 127 

In using Latin for scientific purposes it is customary to write 
the vernacular in Latin words ; for instance, medieval and modern 
Latin in Germany was and is constructed on the same lines as the 
German language itself. French Latin is not the same as German 
or "English Latin, etc. In a Spanish work on Latin which I have, 
there is a chapter on how to converse in Latin, but this Latin 
abounds in the extravagantly polite phrases of the Spanish — "I 
kiss your hands, ' ' and ' ' I kiss your feet ; " in other words this 
Latin in its thoughts and construction is Spanish, and Latin only 
in its vocabulary and grammar. 

In English (Great Britain and United States) the Latin of our 
pharmacopoeias is based on the classical usage just quoted. The 
majority of our English words (most words of three syllables or 
more) are almost pure Latin. Much of our English grammar is 
based on Latin grammar, except that prepositions have largely re- 
placed case-endings; and we use the "attributive noun" in English 
very much as it was used in ancient Latin; so that our English- 
Latin nomenclature corresponds more closely to ancient Latin con- 
struction than does the Latin of any other pharmacopoeia. 

Not only does the construction of the Latin of the Germans dif- 
fer from the Latin of the English or French but the vocabulary 
differs as well. In ancient times, when Latin was a spoken lan- 
guage, the subject of chemistry, for instance, was unknown, and 
as the elements and their combinations were not known, there could 
be no names for them. Sodium and carbonic acid not being known, 
the ancients could have no scientifically correct term for the com- 
pound substance, carbonate of sodium. As new facts in science 
were discovered, new terms or words had to be invented and are 
being invented or "coined" to meet each case; and while some of 
these coined words may not have ranked much higher, philologi- 
cally, than those in the well known rhyme: 

"Boyabus kissibus sweetum girlorum; 
Girlibus likeabus; wantum somorum;" etc., 

yet this coining is the only way of getting Latin words for entirely 
new things and conditions.* 

In judging scientific Latin nomenclature, therefore, we must 



•Incidentally it may be remarked that it is absurd to give our scientific nomenclature, 
derived largely from modern English words, the pronunciation which was supposedly used 
by Cicero for the Latin he spoke 2000 years ago. 



128 THE PRESCRIPTION 

consider carefully the essential peculiarities, or the "genius," of 
the language spoken by those who constructed the Latin titles, and 
coined the necessary words. 

In German scientific nomenclature, especially in chemistry, it is 
usual to find a noun derived from the basic radical qualified by an 
adjective derived from the acid radical of the compound, thus: 
" Schwef elsaures Chinin, " " Kohlensaures Natron," etc. This es- 
sentially German construction was then translated into Latin, the 
necessary Latin words being coined as required, and we find 
"CMninum sulpJiuricum, Natrum carbonicum," etc. This is of 
course as strictly correct Latin as the Latin of science of any other 
language, but it is Latinized German, nevertheless. 

The Germans thus coined adjectives for which we have no Eng- 
lish equivalents; we can not say "sulphated quinine, carbonated 
sodium, ' ' etc., or at least not without changing the meaning. The 
Germans write " Extr actum Ferri Pomatum, Tinctura Ferri 
Pomata;" "pomatus, a, um," being a German-Latin adjective 
of modern coinage which can not be found in literary Latin dic- 
tionaries, nor in English-Latin dictionaries. In German it means 
"aus Aepfeln bereitet;" if we wanted to use such an adjective in. 
English, it would possibly have to be "appleated, " but we do not 
use such adjectives but use nouns with prepositions instead; we 
would say or write "made from apples" or "of apples." 

It is contrary to the genius of the English language to use 
adjectives of this character. Sulphuric acid, for example, forms 
"sulphates" with bases, and we designate the particular kind of 
sulphate by another noun with the preposition "of;" thus: Sul- 
phate of Quinine, Carbonate of Sodium, etc. Grammatically, 
therefore we use the ancient and classical Latin construction with 
the attributive (or partitive) genitive, as is also done in French 
nomenclature, as : Sulfate de Strychnine, Chromate de Potasse, ' ' 
etc. 

We apply our English method of constructing nomenclature to 
our English-Latin, and use a noun qualified by another noun, or 
by a phrase, just as the Germans translate their German into 
German-Latin and use a noun qualified by an adjective. 

Unlike these two nations the French use the English method in 
French (i. e., the usages of the two languages are alike in this 
regard) and the German method in French-Latin, but with this 



LANGUAGE 129 

difference that they derive the Latin noun from the acid radical 
and the adjective from the basic radical; they say "Sulfas strych- 
nicus, Bicliromas potassicus, Carbonas sodicus," etc. 

When we, in English, use a noun qualified by an adjective, we 
inverse the German order and use an adjective derived from the 
basic radical, as in ferrous sulphate (Schwefelsaures Eisenoxydul). 
The question has been raised whether we are not wrong in con- 
tinuing our Latin nomenclature of a noun qualified by another 
noun; it is held by some, that by omitting the preposition "of" the 
noun governed by this preposition becomes an adjective. For 
instance : Carbonate of Sodium is now more generally written 
Sodium Carbonate, and it is contended that Sodium thereby be- 
comes converted into an adjective qualifying Carbonate, and that 
therefore, to be consistent, we must use the German construction 
and write Sodium Carbonicum in Latin. There are two objec- 
tions to be made to this contention : First — Sodium does not become 
an adjective; and second — if it did, we could not use the German- 
Latin nomenclature, but would have to use the French-Latin 
method; Sodium Carbonate would not become Natrum Carbonicum, 
but Carbonas Sodicus. 

In discussing these two objections to the suggestion that we 
adopt the German-Latin nomenclature, we must consider the man- 
ner in which nouns can be qualified in the English language. 

The most common method of qualifying nouns is by adjectives, 
attributive or predicative ; so commonly used is this method that 
some consider that any word used to modify or qualify a noun, 
must necessarily be an adjective, and hence the contention that in 
Sodium Carbonate the word Sodium becomes an adjective. Ac- 
cording to modem works on the English language, a noun may be 
modified also by a phrase, usually but not necessarily consisting 
of another noun with a preposition, as for instance in "mercury 
with chalk. ' ' In Carbonate of Sodium, the noun carbonate is quali- 
fied by the phrase, of sodium ; of sodium is said to be the posses- 
sive case of sodium, (sodium's carbonate). But it is not neces- 
sary that the phrase be a preposition with a noun ; in the sentence — 
"an apple-tree, when blooming, is beautiful," the phrase "when 
blooming" qualifies the noun tree; such a phrase is sometimes 
called an adjectival phrase. The word tree is further qualified 
by the predicative adjective "beautiful." But that is not all; 



130 THE PRESCRIPTION 

it is still further qualified by the word ' ' apple, ' ' and it is in con- 
nection with this word that the difference of opinion occurs. What 
is apple here, noun or adjective? Some claim that it is an adjec- 
tive, and that its use in qualifying another noun changes it from 
a noun to an adjective. Modern grammarians say it is a "noun- 
attribute, " or "an attributive, ' ' and that it remains a noun. 

Originally, in Latin, the relations of nouns to other words were 
almost altogether expressed by case-endings, but in even early 
centuries of our era there was a growing tendency to supplement 
these case-endings with prepositions; thus, originally "pro bono 
publico" was correctly written merely "bono publico," and the 
use of the preposition "pro" was an example of what no doubt 
classical grammarians would have regretted as a tendency towards 
the corruption of Latin. In the so-called post-classical times, the 
use of the prepositions became more and more common, and when 
Latin underwent the modifications which made of it Italian, Span- 
ish, French, etc., the use of the prepositions almost entirely super- 
seded the use of case-endings. The same is true of other lan- 
guages, which, although not so directly evolved from Latin, yet 
took much of their grammatical construction from Latin. 

In quite recent times, however, there has been a growing tendency 
in English, towards also dropping the prepositions, or at least 
of minimizing their use, whenever it can be done without de- 
stroying the sense or meaning. Thus, Carbonate of Sodium has 
been changed to Sodium Carbonate in English, but the change 
has not transformed either word into an adjective but leaves both 
nouns, and one of them in the possessive case with "of" understood. 

The correct translation of Sodium Carbonate to Latin is there- 
fore Sodii Carbonm and not Nairum Carbonicum or Carbonas 
Sodicus. 

Such change is simply due to the modern tendency already re- 
ferred to, of using fewer prepositions, or of considering the preposi- 
tions "understood" but not expressed, where the sense will not be 
destroyed or rendered doubtful by such omission; but the words 
still remain nouns, even when contracted into one compound word. 

"Wind pressure," for instance, means "pressure of the wind," 
and not "windy pressure." Cedar wood is the wood of the cedar, 
and we can not express cedar by an adjective in this combination ; 
the word cedar may be an adjective, with the alternative form 



LANGUAGE 131 

eedarn, meaning "made of cedar wood;" thus, we say cedar chest 
or cedar post (chest or post made of cedar wood) or we can say 
eedarn chest or post, etc.; but in "cedar wood" cedar is not this 
adjective because we can not say cedam wood (or wood made of 
cedar wood) ; the word cedar in cedar wood therefore must be the 
possessive case of cedar (cedar-tree) shortened by omission of the 
case-ending " 's, " and cedar wood, fully written out, would be 
' ' wood of the cedar-tree. ' ' 

So, in many other words, where usage has permitted the omis- 
sion of "of," without making adjectives of some of the nouns, or 
changing the meaning or grammatical construction. The preposi- 
tion "of" is understood in thousands of words similar to the fol- 
lowing in which one of the words (or word-parts) must be con- 
sidered to be a nominative, the other as an attributive or qualifying 
possessive case, or simply as a "noun attribute : " House-top, wagon- 
wheel, fence-post, shipwreck, witch-hazel, elder flowers, sassafras 
bark, gentian root, cell wall, wood alcohol, piston-rod, star-clusters, 
college faculty, corporation lawyer, etc. We always omit the pre- 
position "of" in such constructions as "Lindell Estate (Estate of, 
or belonging to, the Lindell family), State Capital, State bound- 
aries, State officers," etc., and in all such cases both words re- 
main nouns and the preposition "of" is understood. 

Occasionally, although far less frequently, two nouns are used 
together where one noun really represents an adjective, as in 
"star-anise," meaning "star-shaped anise." 

Not only is "of" thus omitted or understood, but other preposi- 
tions as well. Carpet tack means a tack for the carpet ; and the 
preposition "for" is "silent" or "understood" in words like 
wine cellar, water cooler, tack hammer, Avorld-language, etc. 

"Headache" is ache or pain in the head; "head-work" is work 
done by the head ; ' ' hand-work ' ' is work done with the hands, etc. 
Of course, in cases of two nouns standing in this relation to each 
other, in which no preposition can be "understood" and in which 
the possessive case-ending would not make sense, the qualifying 
noun must be considered to be either a contracted phrase attribute, 
or a "noun attribute" ( a noun qualifying another noun) and not 
an adjective. 

Our English and English-Latin nomenclature is based on good 
Latin precedents, and as long as we use preferably the nouns in 



132 THE PRESCRIPTION 

English titles we should use them in our Latin, titles. Morphine 
sulphate is merely •"morphine's sulphate" with the dropping of 
the ease-endings carried a little further than was formerly the 
usage : that is all. Our English-Latin nomenclature is therefore 
just as good and correct Latin as is the German-Latin nomencla- 
ture ; and neither is better or poorer than the other, but both de- 
pend upon the genius of the mother language of those who con- 
structed them. In this regard either method, nouns qualified by 
adjectives (in German and German-Latin), or nouns qualified by 
attributive nouns (in English and English-Latin) is to be pre- 
ferred to the French style of using one method in Latin and an- 
other method in French. 

In another respect our English and English-Latin method is 
preferable ; it constructs our Latin chemical titles on the same 
system as our pharmacognostie titles: Sodii Carbonas, Quiniita 
Sulphas, Belladonna Radix, Colchici Tuber, etc. 

It would be better if our pharmaceutical titles were more in 
accord with our pharmacognostie and chemical titles, but it would 
be as wrong for us to change our scientific nomenclature to the 
German-Latin method, as it would be for the Germans to change 
their titles to the American-Latin method, as long as both retain 
their respective German or English methods, as the case may be. 
German-Latin nomenclature is correct from a German standpoint, 
and English-Latin nomenclature is equally correct from an English 
standpoint ; neither method is more correct than the other, and 
neither is '■'peculiar." 

Abbreviations. 

Although is is best to write out all the words of a prescription 
in full, there can be no serious objection to the almost universal 
habit of abbreviating the names of the ingredients. Several objects 
are aimed at and gained by using these abbreviations. We avoid 
the trouble of learning the Latin case-endings : we save time and 
trouble, and often make the prescription even more readable to 
the druggist than when written out in full. 

Another, and by no means slight, reason for abbreviating is 
that the prescription written in abbreviations becomes even less 
intelligible to the public than a Latin prescription written out in 
full, and in cases where it is desirable to keep the patient in 



LAX 3UAGE 



133 



ignorance of the remedy he is taking proper abbreviations may con- 
tribute materially to this result. In this connection it may be well 
to remind druggists that they often injure the physician, the 
patient and themselves by entering into explanations to an in- 
quisitive customer in regard to the ingredients of a prescription. 
If any such explanations are to be made they can be made by 
the physician, and certainly should not be made by the druggist. 
The physician does not like this meddling with his affairs any 
more than the druggist likes the physician to tell the patient the 
intrinsic value of the ingredients of the prescription. 

But the above advantages are only gained by u sin g proper 
abbreviations, by which we mean such as can not. under any cir- 
cumstances, be construed to mean anything else than what they 
were intended for by the writer of the prescription. 

We may assert, as an axiom, that no abbreviation is correct in 
a prescription which would not allow us to recognize the word 
if it stood alone, even though the context may enable us to goes 
what the word should be. Such an abbreviation as hydr. chlor. cor. 
could not well mean anything but corrosive chloride of mercury, 
and yet all three of these abbreviations are improper, because 
none of them could be recognized if standing alone. Hyd. chl. or 
hydr. chlor.. of course, are worse still, because here the context 
will not allow us to guess whether hydrate of chloral or One of 
the chlorides of mercury is wanted. 

The rules which apply in English for dividing a word when 
part of it is at the end of one line and part at the beginning of 
the next line apply in Latin as well, and an abbreviation should 
usually be made by simply dropping the terminal syllable. 

A rule for abbreviating may be stated as follows: 

Ascertain the stem of the word and then abbreviate by drop- 
ping all letter.* after f~he last consonant in the stem and p~ 
a period after this abbreviation. 

Thus, the stem of the word bismutkum is bismutk, and the last 
consonant is 7i; we therefore place a period after this letter and 
have the abbreviation bismuth., which is. of course, just as plain 
as if we wrote bismuth i out in full. The stem of the word potas- 
sium is potassi. the last consonant of which is the second 5. at 
which we abbreviate, and after which we place the period, thus 
obtaining potass, as the abbreviation. This rule, however, requires 



134 THE PRESCRIPTION 

a knowledge of the declension of words, especially those of the third 
declension, and a merely mechanical rule may be used to ac- 
commodate those who do not know and do not care to learn the 
method of ascertaining the stems of Latin words. Such a rule 
might be stated as follows : 

From the words of the official or officinal names drop the end- 
ings so that the last letter retained is a consonant which imme- 
diately precedes a vowel. Place a period after this consonant. 

As an illustration take the official name hydrargyri iodidum 
viride; dropping i and retaining as last letter the r, which is a 
consonant immediately preceding a vowel, we have hydrargyr. 
as the abbreviation. Abbreviating further by dropping r, we must 
also drop y, so that g is the last letter, as this is the next consonant 
immediately preceding a vowel, and our abbreviation is hydrarg., 
which is as short as we ought to abbreviate, because the next abbre- 
viation would be hydr., and this would not necessarily mean mer- 
cury if it stood alone. According to the same rule iodidum is 
abbreviated to iodid., and viride to virid., and our abbreviation 
for the whole title would be hydrarg. iodid. virid. 

The above rule being merely mechanical, is not quite sufficient 
in all cases. A few words are so short that they can not be 
intelligibly abbreviated at all, as rheum, opium, cera, and some 
others. Fortunately most of these short words are of either the 
first or second declensions, and it is easy to write their genitives. 
A few, however, like pix, calx, etc., are of the third declension, 
and here we must learn the genitives or transgress against the 
rules of Latin grammar and be content to write the nominative; 
or we change the final x to c and place a period after it when we 
have the abbreviation of the genitive, thus: Pic. is an abbreviation 
of picis; calc, of calcis. But here again Ave stumble over the 
difficulty that in some words the vowel preceding final x is changed 
in the genitive, as in cortex and rumex, of which the genitives 
are corticis and rumicis; etc. There are still other words to which 
this mechanical rule will not apply, as aloe, genitive aloes; adeps, 
genitive adipis; etc. 

The only way, therefore, of correctly abbreviating in all cases 
is to study Latin sufficiently to be able to also correctly write out 



LANGUAGE 135 

the names in full, for, according to any other plan, incorrect 
abbreviations will occasionally creep in. 

By long-established custom some incorrect abbreviations may 
be tolerated, as when we write salpli., which always means sulphas, 
or sulphate. It is true that it might be an abbreviation of sulpJiis, 
sulphidum, etc., but by usage the whole world over sulpJi. means 
the sulphate, and the other words must be distinguished by writing 
out in full, or, at least, by a different abbreviation. A common 
error is to abbreviate sulphas, or sulpJidtis, to sul. This is always 
inelegant and wrong. Such abbreviations as Sulp. for sulpJi., 
phosp. for pliospJi., are also quite common ; and in regard to them 
it should be remembered that pin, in these Avords represents one 
sound — the sound of /. It does not, therefore, represent two letters, 
but only one, and can not be separated in this class of words. 

It is not possible to mention all the inelegant or incorrect abbre- 
viations in common use, such as pot. for potassium; lig., liyd., 
and liydr. for hydrargyrum ; cp. and co. for compositus, etc., for 
they are legion. 

Some of these, it is true, have the sanction of long usage in 
their favor and should, perhaps, not be called wrong on that 
account; such are, for instance: co. or cp. for compositus; fl. or 
fid. for fluidus; plv. for pulvis; spl. for simplex; sp., spt., or spts. 
for spiritus; tr. for iinctura; and ugt. or ungt. for unguentum, etc. 

The extremes of brevity to which abbreviations are sometimes 
carried may be seen from the following, which are a very few of 
those quoted as proper in a well-known medical work.* 

C. C Cucuroitula cruenta (cupping glass). 

C. C Cornu cervi (hart 's horn) . 

• c. C. U Cornu cervi itstum (burnt hart's horn). 

0. 0. Oleum olives optimum (best olive oil). 

P. B. N Pro re nata (according to circumstances). 

Q. Q. H Quaqua quarta hora (every four hours). 

Q. P Quantum placet (as much as you please). 

T. 0. Tinctura opii (tincture of opium). 

To use such abbreviations, especially when they refer to such 
powerful preparations as opium tincture, is to trifle with human 

*Thomas' Medical Dictionary. 



136 THE PRESCRIPTION 

life, and if an accident occurred in consequence it should be 
ascribed to criminal carelessness. 

A peculiar method of abbreviation is used in some parts of 
Europe. It is to contract the word to its most important con- 
sonants and end with the proper vowel endings, so that tinctura 
(nominative) is changed to Tra, and tincturce (genitive) to Trae. 
No period is placed after these abbreviations, and unless known 
the names might appear strange. For instance: 

B Trae nuc. vomic, f 3 i. 

Trae cinchon. comp., f 3 vii. 

M. S.: 15 drops three x daily. 

The arithmetical multiplication sign, x , meaning ' ' times, ' ' is 
often used in signatures, as above. 

The main rule in abbreviating should be to write an intelligible 
prescription. Grammatical correctness or elegance are subordi- 
nate considerations. An error in a prescription which merely 
annoys a Latin scholar is absolutely insignificant when compared 
with an error which may lead to the dispensing of the wrong 
medicine. 

The first requisite in writing prescriptions should be to know the 
correct Latin official or officinal titles and to use only them. If 
we could be sure that this was always done it would sometimes 
help us when in doubt about the reading. For instance : Hydr. 
chlor. could not then stand for chloral, because the official name 
is merely Moral. But when both words are used in Latin it 
would be Moral hydras (Br.) or Moral Jiydratum (GT.), and the 
abbreviation would be Mor. hydr., instead of hydr. chlor., the 
latter meaning mercuric or mercurous chloride. Of course, all 
these abbreviations would be wrong, but the point is that the se- 
quence of such wrong abbreviations may occasionally enable us to 
decipher them in doubtful cases. 

Latin Phrases. 

Formerly the subscriptions of prescriptions were written out 
in Latin at great length, as in the following example copied from 
the United States Dispensatory, where it is to be found under the 
title "Examples of Common Extemporaneous Prescriptions:" 



LANGUAGE 137 

R Olei ricini, f3 iss. 

Tincturae opii, TT\. xxx. 
Pulveris acaciae, 

Saccliari, aa 3 ii. 

Aquae menthae viridis, fS iv. 

Acaciam et saccharum cum paululo aquae menthae tere; dein oleum adjice, 
et iterum tere; denique aquam reliquam paulatim infunde, et omnia misce. 
S. : A tablespoonful to be taken every hour till it operates. 

The introduction of the use of such complicated subscriptions pos- 
sibly dates back to a time when physicians dispensed their own 
medicines, or, rather, had them dispensed by the young men who 
"read" medicine in their offices, and who were by no means com- 
petent pharmacists. Now, as a rule, druggists know better than 
physicians how to dispense a prescription, and such detailed direc- 
tions in a subscription would be, to say the least, superfluous. They 
are, therefore, obsolete, except in England, where old habits seem 
to be adhered to with great pertinacity. The signatures are also 
written in Latin by some English authors, although by none others 
in the world, and to enable our readers to understand the most 
common of the phrases that they may meet with in English works. 
or in some English works "adapted to the United States Pharma- 
copoeia," we publish first a few examples of the signatures them- 
selves, and then a list of the more common phrases. 

In this country it is the rule and custom to write very simple 
subscriptions and English signatures, and, therefore, the following 
lists are of comparatively little use here. 

Examples of Latin Signatures (Obsolete in the United States). 

Fiat mistura, cujus detur cochleare Let a mixture be made, of which a 
magnum omni oihorio. tablespoonful may be given every 

two hours. 
Fiat mistura. Hujus sumatur coch- Let a mixture be made. Of this a des- 
leare m-edium omni trihoric sertspoonful may be taken every 

three hours. 
Harum pilularum una sumatur omni Of these pills let one be taken every 

node. night. 

"Hujus sumatur poculum omni trihorio. Of this let a cupful be taken every 

three hours. 
Capiat cochleare minimum omni hora. Let him (the patient) take a teaspoon- 

ful everv hour. 



138 the prescription 

Latin Words, Phrases and Abbreviations. 

The following list has been compiled from numerous pharmaceuti- 
cal books and journals, and is believed to be a fairly complete col- 
lection of the phrases and abbreviations that have been used in pre- 
scriptions. Some of the Latin is very poor, as are also some of the 
translations, but both are given as quoted in the older books. A 
few non-Latin abbreviations are also included. This list does not 
include abbreviations of drug titles : 

LATIN ENGLISH ABBREVIATIONS 

A, ab, abs from 

A tergo behind 

Abdomen abdomen, the belly 

Absente febre in the absence of fever abs. fcbr. 

Abyssus a funnel 

Acer, acris, acre sharp, acrid, pungent ac. 

A cetas an acetate acet. 

Aceticus, a, um acetic acet, 

Acceptus, a, um agreeable, accepted 

account ace, acet. 

Accurate .accurately 

Accurate pensi accurately weighed 

Aciditas sharpness, acidity 

Acidum ..an acid acid. 

Acidus, a, um acid, sour acid. 

Acme the height of a fever 

Ad to, up to 

Ad debitam spissitudinem. . . . to a proper consistence 

Ad debitam tenacitatem to a proper consistence 

Ad def ectionem animi to fainting ad. def . animi 

Ad deliquium to fainting 

Ad duas vices at twice raking ad 2 vie. 

Ad duas vices sumendus to be taken at twice ad 2 vie. sum. 

Ad ebullitionem to boiling ad ebull. 

Ad gratam aciditatem to an agreeable sourness ad grat. acid. 

Ad libitum just as you please ad lib. 

Ad pondus omnium to the weight of the whole. . . 

Ad secundum vicem at the second taking ad 2 vie. 

Ad tertiam vicem (etc.) at the third taking ad 3 vie. 

Ad usum externum for external use ad us. ext. 

Ad vesperam towards evening ad vesp. 

Addatur let it be added ad. or add. 

Addantur let them be added ad. or add. 

Adde add ad. or add. 

Addendo by adding ad. or add. 

Addendus, a, um to be added ad. or add. 

Admoveatur let it be applied admov. 

Admoveantur let them be applied admov. 

Admove apply admov. 

Admoveantur hirudines ii tem- 

pori utrique a PPty two leeches to each 

temple 



LANGUAGE 139 

LATIN ENGLISH ABBREVIATIONS 

Adhibendus, a, urn to be administered 

Adstante febre when there is fever, 

fever being present adst. febr. 

Adversum against adv. 

Aeger (m.) a patient (male) 

Aegra (fern.) a patient (female) 

Aequalis, e equal ■ aeq. 

Aetatis anno in the year of age. aged aet. 

Aggrediente febre when the fever is coming. . . .aggrcd. febr. 

Aggressus an attack 

Agsjressus febris on attack of fever 

Agitata lagena the bottle beins; shaken 

Agitato vase the container being shaken . . . 

Albus, a, um white alb. 

Alcalinus, a, um ....'. alkaline alk. or ale. 

Aliquot some 

A Hquotes sometimes 

Alter, tera, terum the other 

Alternis diebus every alternate day 

A Iternis horis every other hour . . 

Alternis noctibus in alternate nights 

A lternus, a, um alternate 

A luta leather 

Alvo adstricta the bowel being constipated . . 

Alvus the belly, bowels 

Amals'ama amalgam a. a. a. 

Ampins, a, um large, ample 

Ana of each aa. 

and the rest k t A 

Anni currentis of the present year a. c. 

Anno in the year A. 

Anno Christi in the year of Christ A. C. 

Anno Christi nati in the year of the birth of 

Christ a. C. n. 

Anno Domini in the year of the Lord A. D. 

Anno mundi in the year of the w r orld a. m. 

Anonymus, a, um anonymous, without name... anon. 

Ante before 

Ante Christum before Christ A. C, B. C. 

Ante cibos before food, before eating. . . .a. c. 

Ante meridiem, ante 

meridianus forenoon a. m. 

Apparatus apparatus 

Aperiens opening, gentle purging 

Applice emplastrum 

regioni umbilici apply the plaster to the um- 
bilical region 

Applicetur let it be applied 

Aqua water aq. 

Aqua aerea aerated water, mineral water 

Aqua astricta frozen water, ice aq. astr. 

Aqua communis common water aq. comm. 

Aqua destillata distilled water . aq. destil. 

Aqua fervens, aqua fcrvida. .hot water aq. ferv. 

Aqua fiuviatilis river water, hydrant water. . .aq. fluv. 



140 THE PRESCRIPTION 

LATIN ENGLISH ABBREVIATIONS 

Aqua fontalis, aqua fontana, 

aqua f ontis spring water aq font. 

Aqua marina ocean water aq. mar. 

Aqua nivalis snow water, melted snow aq. niv. 

Aqua pluvialis, 

aqua pluviatilis rain water aq. pluv. 

Aqua pura pure water aq. pur. 

Aquae bullientis of boiling water aq. bull. 

Armatus, a, um armed, provided with 

Aures the ears 

Auri dextro to the right ear 

Auri sinistro to the left ear 

Auribus to the ears 

Auris the ear 

Aut or 

Balneum arenae sand bath B. A. 

Balneum calidum hot bath bal. cal. 

Balneum frigidum cold bath bal. frig. 

Balneum mariae water bath (Thomas Diet.) . . .B. M. 

Balneum mariae. balneum 

marinum, balneum maris sea bath, ocean bath, salt 

water bath B. M. 

Balneum temperatum, balneum 

tepidum tepid bath 

Balneum sudatorium hot air bath 

Balneum vaporis vapor bath b. v. 

Balneum vaporisum vapor bath B. V. 

Balsamum balsam bals. 

Barbadensis, e Barbadoes B. B. or B. B. S. 

barrel bar. 

Bene well 

Bene misceatur let it be well mixed. 

Bibat let him drink bib. 

Biduum two days 

Bihorium during two hours, lasting two 

hours 

Bis twice 

Bis in die, bis in dies twice a day , . , .bis. in d. 

Bis tervc twice or thrice 

Bolus bolus bol. 

Bulliat; bulliant; bulliens. . . .let it boil; let them boil; 

boiling ' bull. 

bushel t»u. 

Butyrum butter but. 

Caeruleus, a, um. blue eaerul. 

Calefactus, a, um. warmed cal. 

Calomelas calomel Cal. 

Cape, capiat take ; let him take cap. 

Capiant cochlearia tres magna.let three tablespoonfuls be 

taken capt. cochl. 

iii magn. 

Caput chapter C; Cap.; ch.; 

chapt. 

Carbonicus, a, um carbonate c, carb. 

Cataplasma poultice cat. 

Catharticus, a, um purging cath. 



LANGUAGE 141 

LATIN ENGLISH ABBREVIATIONS 

Caute cautiously 

Cautio est, ne caution must be taken, lest. . . 

Celsius or centigrade Celsius scale of thermometer . C. 

Centimeter or centimetrum. . .centimeter -c. m. 

Centimetrum cubicum cubic centimeter C. c. 

Centum one hundred C. 

Ceratum ointment ccr., or cerat. 

Cerevisia beer 

Cerevisia Londinensis Porter 

Cerevisiae f ermentum beer-yeast 

Cetera other things cet. 

Charta paper ch. or chart. 

Charta caerulea blue paper 

Charta cerata waxed paper ch. c. 

Chartula small paper chart. 

Cibus food cib. 

Circa ; circiter about 

Citissime very quickly, as quickly as 

possible 

Cito quickly 

Clausus, a, um closed, covered 

Cochleare spoon (ful) coch. or co. 

Cochlear amplum tablespoon(ful) coch. amp. 

Cochlear eumulatum a heaped spoon(ful) coch. cum. 

Cochlearia duo majora two tablespoon (fuls) 

Cochlear infantulorum child's spoon(ful) co. infant. 

Cochlear magnum tablespoon (ful) coch. mag. 

Cochlear medium dessertspoon (ful) coch. med. 

Cochlear minimum . . . : teaspoon(ful) coch. min. 

Cochlear modicum dessertspoon (ful) 

Cochlear pr.rvum; Cochleare 

parvulum teaspoon(ful) coch. parv. 

Cochlearis mensura a spoonful coch. mens. 

Cochleatim by spoonfuls cochleat. 

Coctio a boiling coct. 

Cola strain col. 

Cola trans chartam filter through paper 

Colato liquori to the strained liquid 

Colatura strained liquor col. 

Colaturae to, or of, the strained liquid. 

Colatus, a, um strained colat. 

Goletur, let it be strained colet. 

Colentur : let them be strained colent. 

collect on delivery C. O. D. 

Collum a neck 

Collutorium a mouthwash collut. 

Collyrium an eyewash coll., or collyr. 

Coloretur let it be colored 

company co. 

Compositus, a, um compound, compounded c.,co.,cp.,comp. 

Concisus, a, um cut e. c. 

Conf ectio confection conf . or conf eet. 

Confer compare c. f . 

Congius gallon C. or cong. 

Conserva a conserve; keep thou, 

preserve thou cons. 



142 THE PRESCRIPTION 

LATIN ENGLISH ABBREVIATIONS 

Contimia continue 

Continuantur remcdia lot the medicines be con- 
tinued cont. rem. 

Continue without interruption 

Continuo immediately 

Contundo to bruise 

Contusio a, bruise 

Contusus, a, urn bruised, crushed cont. 

Coquantur let them be boiled coq. 

Coque boil coq. 

Coque ad colaturam unciarum 

quinque boil down to 5 ounces of 

strained liquid (any other 
quantity may be stated) . . 

Coque ad medietatis consump- 

tionem boil until half is evaporated, .coq. ad med. 

consump. 

Coque in sufficiente quantitate 

aquae boil in enough water coq. in s. a. 

Coque parum boil a little 

Coque secundum artem boil according t'j the art.... coq. s. art. 

Coquo to boil 

Cor the heart 

Cornu cervi hartshorn (the borrf of a 

hart) c. c. 

Cornu cervi ustum burnt hartshorn c. c. u. 

Cortex bark cort. 

Coxa, or coxendix the hip * 

Cras tomorrow .' 

Cras mane tomorrow morning c. m. 

Cras mane sumendus to be taknn tomorrow 

morning c. m. s. 

Cras nocte tomorrow night c. n. 

Cras vespere tomorrow evening 

Crastinus of tomorrow erast. 

Creditor creditor er. 

Cribrum a sieve 

Cucurbitula cruenta cupping glass c. c. 

Cujus . . . .' of which euj. 

Cujus capiat of which the patient is to take 

Cujus sumat of which the patient is to take 

Cujuslibet of any, of which you please, . cujusl. 

Cum with c. 

Cum guttis quibusdam with a few drops 

Cura attend to, care for c vr. 

Currentis anni of the present year c. a. 

Cyatho thcae in a cup of tea 

Cyathus a cup, wine-glass cyat. or cyath. 

Cyathus a cupping glass, a punch-ladle, 

a wine-glass 

Cyathus vinarius a wine cup, a wine-glass c. vinar. 

Da .give d. 

Dat he gives d. 

De of, or from 

De concerning d. 



LANGUAGE 143 

LATIN ENGLISH ABBREVIATIONS 

De die in the day time 

De die in diem from day to day , . . .de d. in d. 

De ea re concerning this thing d. e. r. 

Deauratus, a, urn gilt, gilded 

Deaurentur pilulae let the pills be gilded deaur. pil. 

Decauretur pilula let the pill be gilded deaur. pil. 

Debilitas debility, weakness 

Debita spissitudo a proper consistence deb. spiss. 

Debitae spissitudinis of a due consistence 

Debitor debtor dr. 

Deb it us, a, um proper, due 

Decanta decant, pour off dec. 

Decern ten x. 

Decimus, a, um the tenth d., dec. 

Deeoctum a decoction decoct. 

Decubitu on going to bed, on lying 

down decub. 

Decubitus lying down 

Dedit he gave d. 

Deglutiatur let it be swallowed. deglut. 

Deglutio to swallow down 

degree deg. or ° 

Dein thereupon, then 

Dejectiones alvinae alvine. dejections, stools dej. alv. 

Dejitio to deposit 

Dentur tales doses let. . . .such doses be siven. . d. t. d. 

(mention number of doses) 

Depuratu3, a, um purified dep. 

Designatus, a, um described, designated, ex- 
pected des. 

Destilla distil dest. 

Destillatus, a, um distilled dest. 

Detur, or dentur let it be given, let them be 

given det. 

Detur ad let it be given to — D. D. 

Detur in duplo lee twice as much be given . . . 

Deus God D. 

Dexter, dextra the right (right side) 

Dictus, a, um said, spoken of 

Die in a day 

Diebus . : in days 

Diebus alfernis every other day, on alter- 
nate days dieb. alt. 

Diebus tertius every third day dieb. tert. 

Dies day d. 

Digeratur let it be digested, or macer- 
ated di?. 

Diluculo at day break diluc. 

Dilue dilute dil. 

Dilutus. a, um diluted dil. 

Dimidius, a, um one-half dim. 

Dimidium the half 

Directions propria with proper direction d. p., dir. prop. 

or direc. prop. 

Diu for a long time 

Diuturna coctione by long continued cooking. . . . 



144 THE PRESCRIPTION' 

LATIX ENGLISH ABBREVIATION'S 

Diuturna trituratione by long continued trituration 

in a mortar 

Diuturnus, a. um. long, continued 

Divide divide div. 

Dividatur in partes aequales.let it be divided into equal 

parts div. in p. aeq. 

Divide in partes aequales. .. .divide into equal parts div. in p. aeq. 

Dividendus, a, um to be divided 

Doctor doctor Dr. 

Dolens paining 

Dolor pain 

Dolores pains 

Doloris of the pain 

Domus bouse, borne d. 

Donee until 

Donee alvus ad sedes ii vel iii 

responderet until tbe bowels shall have 

been moved two or three 
times 

Donee alvus bis dejieiatur. .. until the bowels have been 

twice evacuated 

Donee alvus soluta fuerit. .. .until the bowels are opened.. 

Donee doloris mitigatio sit... until the pain is easier 

Donee dolor nephritieus 

exulaverit until the nephritic pain is 

removed 

Donee globuli evanuerint .... until the globules (of mer- 
cury) shall have disap- 
peared 

Donee liqueseat until it melts 

Donum a gitt a. 

Dosis a dose D. 

Drachma dram 5, flr. or drach. 

Dum while, or whilst 

Dum f ebris absit while fever is absent 

Dum f ebris adsit while fever is present 

Durante dolore while the pain lasts 

Durante febre during tne fever 

E or ex out of 

Eadem (fern.) the same 

Eburneus, a. um made of ivory eburn. 

Edulcoratus, a. um edulcorated ed. 

Effunde pour out 

Effervesceneia effervescence 

Eff ervescet effervesces 

E jusdem of the same ejusd. 

Electuarium an electuary elect. 

Emesis vomiting 

Emplastrum plaster emp. or empl. 

Emulsio. or emulsum emulsion emuls. 

Enema an enema, a clyster en. 

Enemata clysters 

Eodem in the same 

Erit s hall be 

Et and &. 

Etcetera and other things, and so forth, etc.. &c. 



LANGUAGE 145 

LATIN ENGLISH ABBREVIATIONS 

Evanesco to disappear 

Evanuerit shall have disappeared 

Ex out of 

Exampli gratia for example e. g. 

Exampluni txample ex. 

Ex pari in the same manner 

Ex parte partly 

Ex tempore at once 

Exhibe give 

Exhibeatur let it be given exhib. 

Exhibendus. a, um to be given 

Extende spread ext. 

Extende supra spread upon 

Extende super alutam mollens.spread upon soft leather. . . .ex. sup. 

alut. moll. 

Extendo to spread 

Extensus. a, um spread 

Externus. a. um external ext. 

Extractum extract ext. or extr. 

Extremo extremely ext. 

Fac, (imperative of faeio'' . . .make f. 

Fae in pilulas make into .... pills 

Fahrenheit F. 

Farina flour 

Farina seminis lini linseed meal 

farthing q. 

Fasciculus a small bundle '. .fasc. 

Febredurante . . .- during fever 

Febris fever 

Fecit he made it fee. 

Femoribus to the thighs 

Femoribus intends to the inner parts of the 

thighs fern, intern. 

Femur a thigh 

Fervens boiling f erv. 

Fervidus. a. um hot 

Ferventis of boiling 

Fiant let them be made f . or ft. 

Fiant chartulae let .... powders be made. 

make .... powders ft. chart. 

Fiant pilulae let. . . .pills be made f. pil. 

Fiant pulveres let powders be made ft. pulv. 

Fiant suppositoria let. . . .suppositories be made. ft. suppos. 

Fiant troehisei let. . . .troches be made -.ft. troeh. 

Fiat let it be made f. or ft. 

Fiat cataplasma let a poultice be made ft. cat. 

Fiat ceratum let an ointment be made ft. eerat. 

Fiat electuarium let an electuary be made. . . .ft. elect. 

Fiat collyrium let an eyewash be made ft. collyr. 

Fiat emplastrum 4x6 make a plaster -1x6 inches in 

size ft. empl. 4x6. 

Fiat emplastrum epispastienm.make a blister plaster ft. emp. 

epispast. 

Fiat emplastrum vesicatorium.maKe a blister plaster ft. empl. vesic. 

Fiat emulsio. or fiat emulsum.make an emulsion ft. emuls. 

Fiat enema let a clvster be made ft. en. 



146 THE PRESCRIPTION 

LATIN ENGLISH ABBREVIATIONS 

Fiat gargarisma make a gargle ft. garg. 

Fiat haustus make a draught ft. haust. 

Fiat inf usum make an infusion ft. inf us. 

Fiat injectio make an injection (for 

urethra) ft. inject. 

Fiat lege artis let it be made bv the rules 

of the art f. 1. a. 

Fiat linimentum make a liniment .ft. linim. 

Fiat massa let a mass be made ft. mass. 

Fiat massa et divide in 

pilulas make a mass and divide into 

. . . .pills ft. mas. div. 

in pil. 
Fiat massa dividenda in 

pilulas make a mass to be divided 

into. . . .pills f. mas. div. 

in pil. 
Fiat massa in trochiscos 

.... dividenda make a mass to be divided 

into. . . .troches; make. . . . 

troches ft. mas. in 

troch. div. 

Fiat mistura let a mixture be made, 

i make a mixture ft. mist. 

Fiat perpetuum let it be kept open (refer- 

( ring to a blister) 

Fiat pulvis let a powder be made, 

make a powder ft. pulv. 

Fiat pulvis et divide in 

chartulas make. . . .powders ft. plv. et div. 

in chart. 
Fiat pulvis in chartulas 

dividenda make. . . .powders ft. pulv. in 

char. div. 

Fiat secundum artem let it made according to the 

rules of the art f. s. a. 

Fiat secundum artis regulas..let it made according to the 

rules of the art f. s. a. r. 

Fiat solutio let a solution be made, 

make a solution ft. solut. 

Fiat suppositorium .........let a suppository be made... ft. suppos. 

Fiat unguentum make an ointment ft. ung. 

Fiat venaesectio let a venesection be made; 

bleed 

Fiat venaesectio in vena 

saphena bleed the patient in the 

ankle vein 

Fictile earthen vessel 

Fictilis, e earthen 

Filius son fi. 

Filtra filter thou 

Fill rum a filter 

Finis the end, the conclusion 

Fistula armata fountain syringe fist, armat. 

Fluidrachma fluidram fl. dr., f3. 

Fluiduncia fluidounce fl- oz., fj. 



LANGUAGE 147 

LATIN ENGLISH ABBREVIATIONS 

Fluidus, a, um fluid fl. 

Folium leaf .fo., fol. 

Fontana a fountain 

Fontanus, a, um appertaining to a fountain. . .font. 

foot ft. 

Formula a formula, prescription 

Fotus a fomentation 

Frustillatim in small pieces frust. 

free on board f . o. b. 

Fuerit shall have been 

gallon gal. 

Gargarisma, atis a gargle garg. 

Gelatina jelly 

Gclatina ribesiorum currant jelly 

Gelatina quavis in any kind of jelly gel. quav. 

Globulus a little ball 

Gradatim by degrees, gradually 

Gramma, atis a gram G., Gm. 

Grammata grams G., Gm. 

Grana grains gr. 

( iranum a grain gr. 

Gratus, a, um agreeable, rdeasant 

Gul (a Persian name mean- 
ing ' ' rose ") 

Gul attar attar of rose 

Gummi gum gum 

Gummi gutti Gambiae gamboge g. g. g. 

Gutta, guttae drop, drops ' gtt., gutt. 

Guttatim drop by drop guttat. 

Guttis quibusdam with a few drops gutt. quibusd. 

Habet he has h. 

Hac nocte this night 

Hactenus hitherto, heretofore 

Harum of these 

Harum pilularum sumantur 

tres let three of these pills be 

taken; of these pills 

let him take three har. pil. 

sum. iij. 

Haustus a draught, a drink haust. 

Haustus purgans noster our purging draught (made 

after a private formula) . .h. p. n. 

Hebdomada a week hebd. 

Herba a herb, a plant kb., herb. 

Heri yesterday 

Hesterna nocte last night 

Hesternus, a, um of yesterday hestern. 

Hie, haec, hoc this h. 

Hie sepultus est here he lies buried h. s. e. 

Hirudo leech hirud. 

His to these 

His adde add to these 

Hoc loco in this place h. 1. 

Hora hour h., hr. 

Hora amplius over an hour 

Hora antemeridiana in the forenoon 



148 THE PRESCRIPTION 

LATIN ENGLISH ABBREVIATIONS 

Hora decubitus at bedtime h. d., .h. decub. 

Hora mala evil hour h. m. 

Hora pomeridiana in the afternoon 

Hora sex vespertina at six o'clock in the evening. h. vi vesp. 

Hora somni at bed time h. s., hor. som. 

Hora somni sumendus to be taken at bed time h. s. s. 

Hora undecima matutina at eleven o'clock in the 

morning 

Hora vespertina in the evening 



Horae unius spatio at the end of an hour hor. un. spat. 

Horis alternis every other hour 

Horis intermediis in the intermediate hours. . . . 

Hujusmodi of this sort, like this, like 

these 

hundred weight cwt. 

Ibidem in the same place ib., ibid. 

Id est that is i. e . 

Idem, eadem, idem the same id. 

Idem quod the same as i. q. 

Idoneus, a, um proper, fitted for 

Imponantur let them be put on 

Imponatur let it be placed upon 

Imprimis first, in the first place 

In in, on, into 

In die in a day 

In dies daily, from day to day ind. 

In fronte, a fronte in front, before i. f. 

In horas hourly 

In languoribus in the fainting spells 

In leeto in bed 

In pulmento in gruel in pulm. 

In quovis grato vehiculo .... in any grateful vehicle 

In quovis liquido . in any liquid 

In sero lactis vinosa in wine whey 

In singulo in each 

In toto completely 

In usum crastinum for tomorrow 's use 

In vieem • alternately, by turns 

' inch in., " 

Incide cut (thou) inc. 

Incisus, a, um cut inc. 

Indicaverit it shows, indicates 

Indies from day to day ind. 

Infra below inf. 

Infundatur let it be poured in 

Inf unde pour in inf. 

Inf usio or inf usum an infusion inf., inf us. 

Injectio an injection inject. 

Injiciatur let a clyster be given 

Injiciatur enema let a clyster be given inj. enem. 

Inquietudo restlessness 

Instanti mense present month inst. 

Instar like, as big as 

Inter between, among 

Inter scapulas between the shoulders. 



LANGUAGE 149 

LATIN ENGLISH ABBREVIATIONS 

Interdum sometimes, occasionally id. 

Intermedins, a, um intermediate 

Internus, a, um internal, inner 

Intra on the inside, within ia. 

Jam at this time, now ia. 

Jugulum the throat 

Julapium, julupum, julepus ... a julep Jul. 

Jus, juris soup, broth 

Jusculum soup, broth 

Jusculum ovillum mutton broth 

Juxta near to 

Kali potash kal. 

Kali praeparatum prepared kali (carbonate or 

bicarbonate of potash) . .kal. ppt. 

Kilometrum, kilometer kilometer kilo. 

Lac, lactis milk 

Lacte in milk 

Lana .. flannel, wool 

Lana nova new flannel 

Languor f aintness 

Lateri dolenti .' . to the side affected lat. dol. 

Latus, teris the side 

Latus dolens the painful side 

Latus, a, um broad 

Lectus a bed 

Lege, lege artis, legibus. .. .according to the rule of the 

art k a. 

Liber book 1-, lib. 

Libet it pleases (impersonal verb) . . 

Libra a pound lb., lb ., lib. 

Linimentum '. a liniment lin. 

Linteum linen, lint, charpie 

Liquesco to melt 

Liquidus, a, um liquid liq. 

Liquor a solution liq. 

Loco instead, in place of 

Loco citato in the place quoted 1. c. 

Locus sigilli place of the seal L. S. 

Lotio a lotion lot. 

Lotus, a, um washed lot. 

Lumborum of the loins 

Lumbus the loin, hip 

Macera ". macerate (thou) mac. 

Magis minusve more or less 

Magnus, a, um large .....'. mag. 

Major, us, (comp.) larger 

Male positus : badly placed m. p. 

Malleolus ankle 

Malleolus internus inner ankle 

Mane in the morning m., man. 

Mane primo very early in the morning. . . man. pr. 

Manipulus a handful m., man. 

Manus the hand ■. ■ 

Manu calefacta with a warm hand 

Manu scriptum written by hand, manuscript. m. s., mss. 

■ Manus dextra right hand 



150 



THE PRESCRIPTION 



ENGLISH 



ABBREVIATIONS 



Marca a com m. 

Massa a mass mass. 

Massa pilularis a pill-mass m. pil. 

Matutinus, a, um in the morning 

Maxime chiefly, mostly 

Maximus, a, um the largest 

Media nocte in the middle of the night. . . 

Mediocris, e Middle-sized, mediocre, of 

indifferent quality medioc. 

Medius, a, um .middle 

Melior, ins better 

Memento remember, memorandum mem. 

Menses months mess. 

Mensis month mes. 

Mensura by measure m., ms. 

Mica panis crumb of bread mic. pan. 

mile m., mi. 

Mille one thousand M. 

Milligramma, atis milligram mg. 

Millimetrum, millimeter millimeter mm. 

Minax, acis threatening 

Minatur, minar'etur threatens 

Minimus, a, um very small 

Minimum a minim TTL-j m., min. 

Minutum minute m., mi., min. 

Misce mix m. 

Misce, detur, signetur mix, give, sign m. d. s. 

Misce fiant pilulae mix to form pills m. f. pil. 

Misce flat mistura mix to form a mixture m. f. mist. 

Misce flat pulvis mix to form a powder m. f. p. 

Misce, signa, da mix, label and give. . m. s. d. 

Misceantur let them be mixed m. 

Mistura mixture . . mist. 

Mitigatio alleviation, relief 

Mitigatus, a, um lessened, relieved 

Mitis, e '. mild mit. 

Mitte send mitt. 

Mitte haustus purgantis nos- 

tri uncias duas, ad duas 

vices eras mane sumen- 

dns send two ounces of our purg- 
ing draught, to be tahen 
tomorrow morning in two 

equal doses mitt. h.p.n.Hii. 

ad ij vie. c. m. s. 

Mittantur, mittatur let there be drawn mitt. 

Mittatur sanguis let blood be drawn mitt. sang. 

Mittatur sanguis ad §.... 

saltern draw blood to .... ounces at 

least 

Mixtura mixture mixt. 

Mixtum compositum a hodge-podge, a mess mixt. comp. 

Mixtus, a, um mixed mixt. 

Modicus, a, um middle-sized 

Modo praescripto in the manner directed mod. pracs. 

Modus manner 



LANGUAGE 151 

LATIN ENGLISH ABBREVIATIONS 

Moles a mass, a lump 

Molestante dolore when the pain is troublesome. 

Molestante tussi when the cough is troublesome 

Molestor to molest 

Molestus, a, um troublesome 

Mollis, e soft : 

month mo. 

Mora a delay 

More dieto in the manner directed more diet. 

More solito in the usual manner more sol. 

Mortarium a mortar 

Mortario aheneo in the brass mortar 

Mortario marmoreo in a marble (wedgewood) 

mortar 

Mortario vitreo in a glass mortar 

Mos, moris manner 

Mucilago, ginis mucilage muc. 

Multas cautiones habet one must take many precau- 
tions 

nail na. 

Narthecium a gallipot 

Nates the buttocks 

Natrum soda na.tr. 

Ne tradas sine nummo do not deliver it unless paid.ne. tr. s. num. 

Necnon also 

Nemine eontradicenti no one contradicting nem. con. 

Niger, gra, grum black 

Nihil, nihilum nothing nil. 

Nimis too much 

Nisi unless 

Nisns an endeavor, a straining, 

(to vomit, go to stool) 

Nocte at night n. 

Nocte maneque at night and in the morning. . 

Noctes nights 

Nodulo ligati tied with a knot 

Nodulus a little knot 

Nomen, inis name 

Non not 

Non licet it is not permitted n. 1. 

Non liquet it does not melt, it does not 

become clear n. 1. 

Non longe not far off n. 1. 

Nonus, a, um the ninth 

Noster, nostri, (m) one of our party n. n. 

Nostrorum some of our party n. n., n. n. o., 

n. n. r. 

Nota bene ..note well, take notice n. b. 

Novem nine 

Novissime lately, last of all 

Novus, a, um new 

Nox, noctis night n. 

Nucha the nape of the neck 

Nullum datum no date n. d. 

Numero by number, to the number of. .no. 

Numerus a number no., #. 



152 THE PRESCRIPTION 

LATIN ENGLISH ABBREVIATIONS 

Nuper lately 

Nuperrime very lately 

Nux moschata nutmeg n. m. 

Ob on account of o. 

Obsoletus, a, um obsolete, worn out obs. 

Obstante hindering 

Occasio occasion, opportunity 

Octarius a pint O. 

Octava quaque hora every eighth hour 

Octavus, a, um eighth 

Octo eight viii. 

Oculo arte adjuto with a lens 

Oleum oil ol., o. 

Oleum lini sine igne cold-drawn linseed oil ol. lini s. i. 

Oleum olivae optimum best olive oil o. o. o. 

Olim some time ago 

all correct, ' ' oil korreckt " . . . O. K. 

Olla pot, gallipot 

Omni biduo every 2 days omn. bid. 

Omni bihorio every 2 hours omn. bih. 

Omni hora every hour omn. hor. 

Omni mane every morning omn. man. 

Omni nocte i every night omn. noct. 

Omni quadrante horae every quarter of an hour.... omn. quadr. 

hor. 

Omni triduo every 3 days 

Omnibus alternis horis every other hour omn. alt. hor. 

Omnino quite, wholly, entirely 

Omnis, e all o. 

Oportet it behooves, is proper o. 

Optime very well 

Optimus, a, um best o., or opt. 

Opus, operis need, occasion o. 

Opus est it is necessary 

Os, or ossa bone, bones o. 

Ovillum jusculum mutton broth 

Ovorum of eggs 

Ovum an egg 

Oxymel oxymel ox. 

Pagina page p. 

Paginae pages : pp. 

Palmus width of a hand 

Palmus minor width of four fingers 

Palmus major a span of the hand 

Pannus a rag 

Pannus e lana flannel rag 

Pannus lameus . flannel rag 

Pannus linteus linen rag 

Pari modo in the same manner 

Paroxysmus a fit, paroxysm 

Pars, partis a part p., or pt. 

Partem affectam part affected part. aff. 

Partem dolentem part in pain part, dolent. 

Partes aequales equal parts p. ae., or p. aeq. 

Partes eonstituentes the ingredients 

Parti dolenti .to the painful part , . , 



LANGUAGE 153 

LATIN ENGLISH ABBREVIATIONS 

Partibus centenis per cent p. c, p. ct., 

or % 

Partibus vicibus in divided doses part. vie. 

Partitis vicibus in divided doses part. vie. 

Partitus, a, urn parted 

Parum, or parumper a little 

Parvulus a little one, an infant 

Parvulum a little bit 

Parvus, a, um small, little 

Pastilla, or pastillum a pastil, lozenge 

Pauper poor p. 

Pauperrimus very poor pp. 

Pauculum a little 

Paululum a little 

Pauxillum a little 

peck pk. 

Pectus, pectoris the breast 

Pediluvium a footbath 

pence, penny d. 

Pensus, a, um weighed 

Per through, by 

Per bihorium during 2 hours per b. 

Per deliquium by deliquescence p. d. 

Per die throughout the day 

Per se by itself 

Per vicem alternately 

Per vim forcibly . . , 

Peracta operatione emetici. . .when the emetic has acted. . . . 

Peractus, a, um completed 

Perf ectus. a, um completed 

Perf rieandus, a, um to be rubbed 

Perfricetur let it be rubbed 

Pergat in usu medicinarum. .let him continue with the use 

of the medicines 

Pergat in usu remediorum. . . .let him continue with the use 

of the remedies 

Pergo, pergere to go on with, continue 

Perpetuus, a, um perpetual 

Phiala prius agitata the bottle having been first 

shaken p. p. a. 

Pilula a pill p. or pil. 

pint pt. 

please turn over p. t. o. 

Pluvialis aqua rain water 

Pluviatilis aqua rain water 

Pocillum or poeulum a cup, little cup pocill., pocul. 

'. pole po. 

Pollex, icis the thumb 

Pomeridianus in the afternoon p. m. 

Pomum an apple 

Pondere by weight p. 

Pondo by weight p. 

Pqndus weight .- p. 

Pondus civile civil (avoirdupois) weight. . . 

Pondus medicinale apothecaries' weight p. m. 

Pondus specificum specific weight .p. sp. 



154 THE PRESCRIPTION 

LATIN ENGLISH ABBREVIATIONS 

Pone (adv. and prep.) behind 

Pone aurem behind the ear 

Pone (vb.) place, put 

Pone in capsulas put in capsules 

Porro moreover 

Post after p. 

Post cibo after eating 

Post meridiem afternoon p. m. 

Post singulas sedes liquidas. .after every loose stool post sing. 

sed. liq. 

Postea then, afterwards 

Post meridianus in the afternoon p. m. 

Post scriptum written after p. s. 

Postulet, or postulent may require 

Potio, or potus a potion, drink pot. 

Prae manu at hand, or on hand 

Praecipitus, a, um precipitated pet. 

Praecipue especially 

Praeparatus, a, um prepared ppt. 

Praeparentur let them be prepared 

Praeparo to prepare 

Primo first of all 

Primo mane very early in the morning. . . . 

Primus, a, um first p. 

Prior, prius the first, the former 

Priusquam before that 

Pro for p. 

Pro lubitu according to desire 

Pro ratione .in porportion to 

Pro ratione aetatis according to the age of the 

patient p. rat. act. 

Pro ratione doloris according to the nature of 

the pain 

Pro re nata according to circumstances, 

occasionally p. r. n. 

Pro tempore for the time p. t., pro tem. 

Prompte or promptim promptly 

Proprius, a, um proper 

Proximus, a, um the nearest, last, next, next to.prox. 

Proxima luce the day before, next day. . . .prox. luc. 

Proximo mense next month prox. 

Pruriens, ntis itching 

Pruritus an itching 

Psora the itch 

Pugillus a handful, a pinch between 2 

fingers, as much as can be 

grasped by 3 fingers p., or pug. 

Pulvis powder p., plv., pulv. 

Pulvis subtilissimus very fine powder 

Purificatus, a, um purified 

Pyxis a pill-box, lozenge-box 

Quacum (f ) with which 

Quamprimum as soon as possible 

Quando when q. 

Quantum libet as much as you please q. 1. 

Quantum placet as much as you please q. p., q. pi. 



LANGUAGE 155 

LATIN ENGLISH ABBREVIATIONS 

Quantum satis enough q. s. 

Quantum sufficiat enough q. s. 

Quantum sufficit enough q. s. 

Quantum vis as much as you will q. v. 

Quantum volueris as much as you please q. v. 

Quantus, a, um as great as, such as q. 

Quaqua every 

Quaqua hora every hour q. h. 

Quaqua quarta hora every four hours .q. q. h. 

Quaque each, every q. q. 

Quaque quarta hora every four hours q. q. h. 

quart qt. 

Quarta pars one-fourth 

quarter qr. 

Quartus, a, um fourth 

Quarum (f ) of which 

Quasi dicat as much as to say q. d. 

Quater four times 

Quater in die four times a day 

Quatuor four iv. 

Quavis with any 

Que and q. 

Questio query, question q., qu v qy., ? 

Qui, quae, quod who, which, what, that q. 

Ouinquaginta fifty L. 

Ouintus, a um the fifth q. 

Quibus from which, with which 

Quibusdam to, or with, some 

Quiescat .goes to rest, is easier 

Quilibet. quaelibet, quodlibet. any 

Quingenti : . . . five hundred D. 

Ouinque five V. 

Quinquies five times 

Ouintus, a, um the fifth 

Quod erat demonstrandum. . . .which was to be shown q. c. d. 

Quod erat faciendum which was to be done q. e. f. 

Quod vide which see q. v. 

Ouoque also q. q. 

Quorum (m. or n.) of which quor. 

Ouos. quas, quae which 

Quotidie daily 

Radix, icis root rad. 

Ratio proportion, reason 

Raueedo hoarseness 

Reaumurianus Reaumur, thermometer scale . . R. 

Recens, ntis recent, fresh rec. 

Recipe take R., R. 

Recipe aquae f ervidae take of hot water R aq. ferv. 

Recte correctly r. 

Redactus in pulverem reduced to powder red. in pulv. 

Redigatur let it be reduced 

Redigatur in pulverem let it be reduced- to powder. . .redig. in pulv. 

Redige reduce 

Redigetur it may be reduced 

Redigo to reduce 

Refrixerit it may be cooled 



156 THE PRESCRIPTION 

LATIN ENGLISH ABBREVIATIONS 

Regio a region (anatomical) 

Regio epigastrica epigastric region 

Regio lumborum region of the loins 

Regio umbilici umbilical region 

Reliquus, a, urn remaining 

Remedium a remedy 

Repetatur, repetantur let it (them) be repeated. .. .rpt., repet. 

Repetendus, a, um to be repeated 

Respondere .to answer 

Retinendus, a, um to be kept 

Retinere to keep 

Retro backwards, behind r. 

Ribes currants 

Ruber, bra, brum red 

Saltern at least 

Sanetus, a, um holy, sainted st. 

Sanguinis missura blood-letting 

Sanguis blood 

Saphena vena the ankle vein 

Satis enough s. 

Scapula shoulder blade 

Scatula a box scat. 

Scilicet namely, for instance sc, scil. 

Scrobiculus cordis pit of the stomach 

Scrupulus scruple 9 , sc, ser. 

Sculpsit he carved (engraved) it sc, sculp. 

Secundum according to 

Secundum artem according to the art s. a. 

Secundum artis leges according to the rules of the 

art s. a. 1. 

Secundum naturam according to nature s. n. 

Secundus, a, um second s -> se c 

Sed but 

Sedes alvine evacuations, stools .... 

Sedes liquidae loose stools 

Semel once 

Semen seed sem. 

Semi drachma half a drachm 3ss., semi dr. 

Semihora half an hour semih. 

Semissis, semis one-half s., ss. 

Semper always 

Septem seven vii. 

Septimana a week 

Septimus seventh 

Sequens, ntis following seq. seqq., 

sq. sqq. 

Sequente luce the following day 

Serum lactis whey 

Serva preserve, keep serv. 

Sescuncia an ounce and a half sescunc. 

Sesqui one-and-a-half 

Sesquihora hour and a half sequih. 

Seu or s. 

Sex ' six vi. 

Sextus, a, um sixth 

shilling s. 



LANGUAGE 157 

LATIN ENGLISH ABBREVIATIONS 

Si if 

Si non valeat if it does not avail, if it does 

not answer si n. val. 

Si opus sit if necessary, if there be oc- 
casion, if there) be op- 
portunity si p. sit. 

Si sitiat if thirsty 

Si vires periuittant if the strength permit si vir. perm. 

Sic? sic! is it so? is it possible! 

Signa sign s . 

Signatura a signature, a label s. 

Signotur let. it be labeled s. 

Signetur nomine proprio let it be labeled with its 

proper name s. n. p. 

Signetur suo nomine let it be labeled with its 

own name g _ g . n . 

Simplex, icis simple S pl. 

Simul together 

Simul ae at the same time that 

Sine without s. 

Sine acido without acid s. a. 

Sine lege contrary to rule 

Sine mora without delay 

Sine pecunia without money s. p. 

Singulis diebus every day sing. d. 

Singulorum of each sing. 

Singultus hiccough 

Singulus, a, um each 

Sinister, tra, trum the left 

Sit let it be 

Sitis thirst 

Sive or 

Solitus, a, um accustomed 

Solus, a, um alone 

Solutio solution sol. 

Solutus, a, um dissolved sol. 

Solve • dissolve sol., solv. 

Somnus sleep 

Spina spine 

Spiritus spirit s., sp., spt., 

spir. 

Spiritus vini alcohol s. v. 

Spiritus vini rectificatus rectified alcohol s. v. r. 

Spiritus vini tenuis proof spirit s. v. ten. 

Spiritus vinosus an alcoholic spirit s. v. 

.Spiritus vinosus rectificatus. . .rectified spirit of wine s. v. r. 

Spissitudo thickness of consistence 

Spissus, a, um thick 

square foot sq. ft. 

square inch sq. in. 

square yard sq. yd. 

Statim immediately stat. 

Sternutatorius pulvis snuff, sneezing powder 

Stet, stent let it (them) stand st. 

stone st. 

Stratum super stratum layer upon layer s. s. s. 



158 THE PRESCRIPTION 

LATIN ENGLISH ABBREVIATIONS 

Stupa tow 

Hub under s. 

Sub fincm coctionis when the boiling is nearly 

finished sub. tin. coct. 

Subactus, a, um subdued, dissolved 

Subige dissolve, make them unite .... 

Subinde frequently, now and then. . . . 

Subitaneus, a, um sudden 

Subito suddenly 

Subitus, a, um sudden 

Subtepidus, a, um luke-warm 

Subter under s. 

Subtilis, e subtle, reduced to fine powder. 

Sudor sweat, perspiration 

Sufficiens quantitas sufficient quantity s. q. 

Sumat . . . let him take sum. 

Sumat hane let him take this 

Sumat magnitudinem nucis 

moschatae let him take the bigness of 

a nutmeg 

Sumat molem instar nucis 

moschatae let him take a piece as big 

as a nutmeg 

Sumat talem let the patient take one like 

this 

Sumatur, sumantur let it (them) be taken sum. 

Sume take sum. 

Sumendus, a, um to be taken sum. 

Summitates tops sum. 

Superbibendo haustum drinking afterwards this 

draught 

Superf undo to pour upon 

Supra above S up. 

Suus, a, um his, her, its s. 

Syncope a fainting fit 

Syrupus syrup S j r , 

Tabella lozenge tabel. 

Tactus the touch 

Taenia tape-worm 

Talis, e such, like this tal. 

Talus the ankle 

Tam so 

Tamen yet 

Tempore in time, at the right time .... 

Tempora the temples 

Tempori dextro to the right temple temp. dext. 

Tempori sinistro to the left temple temp, sinistr. 

Tempus, oris time ; temple temp. 

Tempus aptum proper time 

Tenacitas tenacity 

Tenendus, a, um to be held 

Teneo to hold . 

Tenuis, e weak, slender, thin 

Tepef actus, a, um warmed 

Ter three times 

Ter in die three times a day t. i. d., t. d. 



LANGUAGE 



159 



LATIN ENGLISH ABBREVIATIONS 

Tor quaterve three or four times 

Terantur simul let them be rubbed together 

in a mortar 

Tere rub tor. 

Tere diu rub for a long time 

Tere omnia rub all together 

Tere simul rub together 

Terendus, a, urn to be rubbed 

Terguin the back 

Tertius, a, urn third 

Thorax, acis chest 

Thus frankincense 

Tinctura tincture tr., tinct. 

Tincturac of the tincture trae. 

Tinctura opii tincture of opium t. o. 

Tinctura opii camphorata. . . .paregoric t. o. c. 

Tinea capitis scald head 

Torref actus, a, um roasted 

Trans through 

Trans cribrum through a sieve 

Tres three ii i . 

Triduum three days 

Tritura triturate trit. 

Trituratio trituration 

Trituratus, a, um triturated, ground 

Tritus the grinding, rubbing 

Trochiseus troche, lozenge troeh, 

Tu thou t, 

Tussi molestanti when the cough is trouble- 
some 

Tussis cough 

Ultimo praescriptus last prescribed ult. praosc. 

Ultimus, a, um the last ult. 

Ultimo mense last month ult. 

Umbilicus navel 

Una together 

Una cum at the same time with 

Uncia an ounce 3, oz., G., Y. 

Undecim eleven xi. 

Unguentum ointment ung., ungu. 

ungt. 

Unguentum caeruleum mercurial (blue) ointment... 

Unus, a, um one 

Urgente inquietudine if restless 

Urgente tussi when the cough is troublesome 

Urgeo to urge, oppress 

Usque ad up to, as far as 

Usus use v. 

Ut as that, in the same manner as 

Ut ante as before 

Ut assolet as is customary 

Ut dictum as directed ut. diet. 

Ut heri as yesterday 

Ut vix sentiatur that it can hardly be per- 
ceived 



160 THE PRESCRIPTION 

LATIN ENGLISH ABBREVIATIONS 

Utatur let him make use of 

Utendus, a, um to be used 

Uterque, utraque, utrumque. .both. 

Utor, uti to use 

Utriuslibet of whichever of the two the 

patient likes best 

Vaecinatio the aet of vaccinating 

Vaecinum lac '. cows ' milk 

Valde much, very much 

Valde mane very early in the morning. . . . 

Vale farewell 

Valeo to avail, to be well 

Variola vaccinae cow pock 

Varicella chickenpox 

Variola smallpox 

Vas, vasis a vessel 

Vas vitreum glass vessel 

Vase elauso in a closed vessel 

— ve, vel or, either (- — ve is used only 

as a suffix) 

Vehiculum a vehicle 

Vel or, either 

Vena a vein 

Venaesectio venesection v. s. 

Venaesectio brachii bleeding in the arm v. s. b. 

Versus against v. 

Vertebrae the vertebrae or spine . . '. 

Verus, a, um true, real, genuine 

Vesper, vesperis evening vesp. 

Vespere in the evening vesp. 

Vespertinus, a, um in the evening 

Vester, tra, trum your v. 

Vice instead of . . . . ' 

Vicesimus, a, um the twentieth 

Vicibus partitis in divided doses 

Vicis (gen.), vicem (ace), vice 

(abl.) turn, change, alteration vie. 

Vide see v., vid. 

Videlicet namely viz. 

Vigesimus, a, um the twentieth 

Viginti twenty xx. 

Vinarius, a, um vinous, alcoholic 

Vinosus, a, um vinous, alcoholic vin. 

Vinum wine v., vin. 

Vir man v. 

Vires strength 

Vitello ovi solutus dissolve in yelk of an egg. ... v. o. s. 

Vitellus or vitellum yelk of egg vit. 

Vitellus ovi yelk of egg vit. ov. 

Vitreus, a, um made of glass v. 

Vitrum glass v. 

Vix scarcely 

Vomitio the act of vomiting 

Vomitione urgente the vomiting being trouble- 
some vom. urg. 

Vultus the face, countenance s 

yard yd. 

Zingiber ginger z. z. 



PART IV 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS. 

Preliminary Considerations. 

We have already learned that prescriptions are divided into two 
classes, 'permanent and extemporaneous , and have also learned that 
these differ not so much in their form, or in the character of the 
resulting preparations, but rather in the manner in which, and ac- 
cording to the circumstances under which, they are written. We 
desire to impress this fact clearly on the mind of the reader, 
especially as some writers have given entirely erroneous ideas on 
this subject. 

The permanent prescriptions are formulas which are kept perma- 
nently on record in books of reference, as, for instance, the pharma- 
copoeial formulas for tinctures, wines, pills, etc. The keeping qual- 
ity of the products has nothing to do with the definition of a perma- 
nent prescription, although we have seen the definition that a 
permanent prescription is one which, when compounded, will yield 
a permanent preparation. So far is this from true that some of 
the most ephemeral of preparations — infusions — are made accord- 
ing to permanent prescriptions. 

On the other hand, an extemporaneous prescription, when com- 
pounded, may give products having great keeping qualities, as 
when we presmbe pills or mixtures of tinctures which will keep 
for an indefinite length of time. 

The word extemporaneous is from the Latin ex tempore — literally, 
out of the time — and means proceeding from the impulse of the 
moment, unpremeditated, off-hand. This meaning sufficiently char- 
acterizes the nature of extemporaneous prescriptions. They are 
written by the physician to meet the peculiar requirements of an 
individual patient at the time of writing, and may, therefore, call 
for a combination which would be inappropriate under any other 
circumstance or at any other time. These prescriptions are also 

161 



162 THE PRESCRIPTION 

called magistral prescriptions (from the Latin magister, master), 
because they are arbitrarily or dogmatically written on the judg- 
ment of an individual whose authority in this matter admits of no 
dispute. Formerly the word magistral was also used as a synonym 
for sovereign or excellent, and a magistral remedy meant a 
sovereign remedy. 

The term prescription is often understood by the public to mean 
the piece of paper given them by the physician, with all that is 
written thereon. In this sense we will now consider it. 

Prescription Blanks. 

It is customary for the physician to carry with him prescrip- 
tion blanks, with the address of some pharmacist printed on the 
back of them. "When the physieian uses these blanks it is generally 
understood by the public to mean that they must go to the drug 
store designated on the back to get their medicines. The physieian 
should, therefore, use the blanks of such druggists only as he be- 
lieves to be thoroughly competent. It is not necessary again to 
dwell on this matter, as the views of the writer are fully set forth 
in the earlier part of these pages under the head, "Specifying in 
Prescriptions." (See page 36.) 

Many physicians prefer to use their own blanks without any drug- 
gist 's address on them, and this is preferable when the physician 
makes visits at long distances from his home. He can then desig- 
nate verbally to which drug store in the neighborhood of the pa- 
tient's home the prescription is to be taken for compounding. 

Writing. 

But whether the physician uses his own or some pharmacist's 
blank, this piece of paper should be sized so as to be fit for pen- 
and-ink writing. To rely on any chance supply at the house of 
the patient, odd bits of wrapping paper, the inside of old envelopes, 
leaves torn from memorandum books, etc., denotes slovenliness and 
carelessness on the part of the prescription writer, and the public 
is led to think that he writes so few prescriptions that he doesn't 
find it worth while to carry paper with him. It is one of the many 
minute influences in regard to. which attention or neglect con- 
tributes in some subtle manner to success or failure in practice. 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 



163 



These blanks should, therefore, be of good paper, well and smoothly 
kept in a pocket-book, or in blocks, and especially should they be 
kept clean. The writing on them should be as plain as can be, not 
in lead-pencil, but in ink, which is quite feasible in these days of 
fountain pens. Lead-pencil marks often become blurred and al- 
most illegible by the handling they receive before they are pre- 
sented for compounding. The poor penmanship of some physicians 
only too clearly betrays their want of general education, and is an- 
other of those small influences which, perhaps, amount to little in 




themselves, yet exert such great influence in the aggregate in mak- 
ing or marring one's career. To affect an eccentric, peculiar, and 
illegible chirography, under the mistaken idea that a poor hand- 
writing will be considered an evidence of genius, is a form of quack- 
cry unworthy of the educated physician. When the writing is in 
ink, the paper should not be folded until it is perfectly dry, to avoid 
blurring and consequent possible mistakes. 

The dissecting-room joke of drawing a skeleton is probably fa- 
miliar to all; by folding a piece of paper so as to form a crease, 
then writing along one side of the crease the word "cent" with a 
long stroke through the " t, " and folding again so as to produce a 



164 THE PRESCRIPTION 

reversed impression on the opposite side of the crease, the crude 
figure of a skeleton may be produced. A similar effect in a pre- 
scription may transform '5 into §, or IV, V, VI, VII, or VIII into 
IX, X, XI, XII, or XIII, or it may so blur the entire prescription 
as to make it utterly illegible. 

When the writing is dry, the paper is ready to be delivered to 
the patient. If the physician can conveniently do so, he may put 
the prescription into an envelope before giving it to the patient. 
This prevents the soiling and tearing of the prescription, and, by 
keeping it clean and legible, acts to some extent as a safeguard 
against mistakes. 

Besides the prescription proper, or the directions for compound- 
ing the medicines, a number of other things are written on the 
blank. 

The Date. 

The first thing should be the date. This is usually written at 
the head of the blank. The best method is to write the name of the 
month, either in full or abbreviated, then the number of the day, . 
and then the year, thus : Sept. 27, '86. The number for the year is 
generally abbreviated by omitting the number of the century, sim- 
ply writing 86, preceded by an apostrophe, as in the above line. 
Some prefer to write the number of the month instead of writing 
the name. This often gives rise to confusion if Arabic numerals are 
used, because there is no uniform rule as to whether the number of 
the month or the number of the day shall be written first. Some 
would write the sixth day of September, 6. 9. '86 ; some would write 
it 9\6.'86; others write it in the style of a fraction, 6/9. '86, or 9/6. 
'86. "When the number of the day is 13 or more, of course no mis- 
take can occur, but in the illustrations given above no one could 
positively say whether the ninth day of the sixth month or the 
sixth day of the ninth month was meant by the writer, unless he was 
acquainted with the physician's habit in this regard. 

We should, therefore, always write the number of the month in 
Roman numerals, and the number of the day in Arabic numerals, 
when it will, of course, make no difference which is written first, 
for 6.ix. '86 or ix.6.86 will be equally intelligible. 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 165 



Name op the Patient. 



Then there should follow on the blank a line for the name of the 
patient, thus: 

For 

The prescriber should not neglect to insert the name of the per- 
son for whom the medicine is intended, because it is a safeguard 
against mistake. The druggist is less liable to deliver the medicine 
to the wrong party, and at the home of the patient there is less 
likelihood of the administration of the medicine to the wrong mem- 
ber of the household. 

Charity Patients. 

If the patient is poor and unable to pay full price for his medi- 
cines* the physician may write the letter " P " on the prescription 
after the name, which means the patient is poor (the letter stands 
for the Latin word pauper, poor). If the patient is unable to pay 
anything at all, the letters "P P" (pauperrimus, very poor) will 
convey the information to the druggist. Of course, the physician 
ought not to use these signs unless he himself is also serving in 
the case gratuitously, as it would be unfair for him to collect his 
fees and then send the patient to become a tax on the charity of the 
pharmacist ; nor should unnecessarily expensive medicines be or- 
dered for charity patients. 

Prescriptions for Emergency Cases. 

In an emergency case it may be necessary to have the medicine 
dispensed in a hurry, and this may be indicated in the prescrip- 
tion by the words cito (quick), or citissime (very quick, or quick- 
est) , and the prescription will have precedence over everything else, 
but the prescription should be as simple as possible, so as to be 
easily and quickly put up. Prescriptions for infusions, decoctions, 
and other time-consuming preparations would be out of place. So, 
also, would prescriptions for pills, capsules, and other slow-acting 
forms of remedies be inappropriate for emergency cases, in which 
fluid preparations will be found to act most promptly. 

The above words, if used at all, are written at the head of the 
prescription blank so as to attract attention at once. 



166 the prescription 

Physician's Address. 

Then follows the prescription proper, which we will consider 
hereafter, and after it should come the full name of the physician — 
if possible, in plain print — together with his full address and his 
office hours, which latter may be of importance in case the physi- 
cian should make an error in his prescription, which would re- 
quire the pharmacist to consult him before putting up the medicine. 

About Repetitions. 

Some physicians have recently commenced the practice of writ- 
ing immediately after the signature/, of the prescription the words, 
"not to be repeated." It is doubtful whether this direction can be 
obeyed by the pharmacist, and it is probably superfluous and use- 
less. "When this direction is on the blank, the patient will gen- 
erally demand that his prescription shall be returned to him, and 
no druggist would hesitate to put it up without asking whether it 
had been previously compounded or not, and many pharmacists will 
pay no attention to any such directions. The question of owner- 
ship in the prescription is a very vexing one, and while the writer 
inclines to the belief that the prescription belongs to the patient 
who has paid for it, there are others who claim it to be the prop- 
erty of the physician, and some who believe it to become the prop- 
erty of the pharmacist who compounds it. The question is not 
likely ever to be satisfactorily settled, and, therefore, it is not neces- 
sary to say more about it than that it will be of little or no use 
to write "not to be repeated." 

There are some prescriptions to which these remarks do not 
apply. The Antinarcotic Law of the United States makes it the 
duty of the druggist to file all prescriptions for articles to which 
the law applies, and forbids him to repeat the same. The same 
is true in prohibition states in regard to prescriptions for spiritu- 
ous or vinous liquors ; they must be filed and must not be repeated. 
But these laws have been comparatively recently enacted. 

The Prescription. 

From time immemorial it has been considered to be the aim of 
the physician to cure rapidly, safely, and pleasantly (curare cito, 
tuto, et juennde), and the modern prescription is written with these 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 167 

aims in view. To accomplish these objects, a complete compound 
prescription contains several parts which have received various 
names from different writers. All writers agree in adopting this 
scheme : 

Superscript™ superscription. 

Inscriptio 

seu 
Designatio materia; 

seu L inscription. 

Preescriptum proprkim 

seu 

Trmscriptio propria 

Subscriptio subscription. 

Signatura signature. 

The superscription {super scriptio, onis, f., from the Latin super, 
above, and scriptio, onis, f., writing), at the present time consists, 
in a Latin prescription, of the letter R or the sign Iy . In an Eng- 
lish prescription it is customary to write "take of," while the 
French usually write P. (abbreviation for prenez, take), and the 
Germans begin with "Man neJime," or "nimm" (take). 

The letter R in the Latin prescription is an abbreviation from 
recipe (imperative of the verb recipio, 3, to take), and means 
"take." The sign fy, however, has a different origin. In ancient 
times it was customary to invoke the blessing of the deity on the 
remedies to be taken by a formal prayer at the beginning of the 
prescription, and, with the usual attempt of the physicians to ab- 
breviate as much as possible, these invocations finally dwindled 
down to merely naming the deity addressed, and, later, to write, 
instead of the names, the signs used to designate them. Thus the 
aid of Mercury, the god of merchants and thieves, was invoked by 
using the sign $ as a superscription ; the aid of Venus, goddess of 
love, beauty, and pleasure, by using the sign 2 (rude representa- 
tion of a hand-mirror) ; or the aid of Jupiter, the supreme god and 
father of gods, by using the symbol U , now also used as a zodiacal 
sign for the planet Jupiter. This sign survives in the shape of IJi , 
especially as generally written, being merely furnished with the 
stroke of the R. In the oldest pharmacopoeia known, the Egyptian 
papyrus from Thebes, already previously referred to, no invoca- 
tion or superscription was used, but the physician began abruptly 
with an enumeration of the ingredients of his prescription. The 



168 THE PRESCRIPTION 

use of these invocations was of a later date and originated among 
the Greeks and Romans, and continued to the time of the alchemists. 
At that time the influence of the church on the minds of men, or 
perhaps the fear of the Inquisition, led physicians to adopt an in- 
vocation to the Christian God, and, just as they abbreviated a 
prayer to crossing themselves with their fingers over their fore- 
heads and breasts, so they contracted the invocation to the sign of 
the cross, >{«, as a superscription. Sometimes a double cross, *S, 
was used, and the writer knew a physician who used this double 
cross at the head of his prescription blanks but a few years ago. 

Some used the abbreviation A O (the Greek letters Alpha and 
Omega), which referred to God as the beginning and end of all 
things; or the letters J. D. (Juvante Deo, God helping), or, J. J. 
(Juvante Jesu, Jesus helping). 

Others used the words Cum Deo (with God, or in the name of 
God), or abbreviated these words to C. D.: or the letters N. D. 
(Nomine Dei, in the name of God), thus beginning their prescrip- 
tion with the formula even now used by many ministers in opening 
services on Sunday when they say. "In the name of God, Amen!" 
("Im Namen des Herrn, Amen! Lasset uns sing en," etc.) 

In view of this origin of the use of a superscription, it becomes 
a question of interest whether " Superscripts" should not have been 
" Superstitio." The only traces of all this superstition to be found 
in the modern prescription is the little appendix to the letter R, 
as seen in the sign JJ. 

The inscription (inscriptio, onis, f., from the Latin verb inscribo, 
3, to write down, to describe, to designate) consists of an enumera- 
tion of the medicinal substances which are to be used in com- 
pounding the prescription. Either of two plans may be followed 
in writing this part of the prescription — to enumerate the medicines 
in a definite order according to their therapeutical importance, or 
to write them in the order in which the pharmacist takes them for 
compounding. 

The first is the more common plan, because it is the easier. Writ- 
ers are not all agreed on the best form of this plan, some subdivid- 
ing the remedies into four, others into five groups. In either case, 
however, the plan is based on the direction to cure quickly, safely, 
and pleasantly (curare cito, into, ct jucunde). In fact, the divi- 
sion into four groups, according to therapeutical importance, seems 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 169 

to have been adopted, not so much on account of the relative value 
of the ingredients as from a desire to adapt the modern prescrip- 
tion more closely to the above classic advice of Asclepiades. We 
see this in the following plan : 

{base- curare, 
auxiliary cito. 
corrective tuto, 
vehicle et jucundc. 

The base (basis, is, f.) is the most important ingredient of the 
prescription, on which the main reliance for cure is based. No one 
remedy, however, always answers all the indications of the case 
and it may be necessary to add some other ingredient to increase 
the medicinal effect of the base. This is called an adjuvant or 
auxiliary (adjuvans, antis, n., from the verb adjuvo. 1. I assist). 
and is intended to comply with the command to cure quickly. 

If either the base or adjuvant has objectionable therapeutical 
properties, a third ingredient, the corrective (corrigens, entis, n.. 
from the verb corrigo, 3, I improve) is added, which complies with 
the demand to cure safely. Lastly comes the vehicle (ueliiculum, i, 
n.. also formerly called constituent), in which the other ingredients 
are dissolved and conveyed to the patient, and which usually con- 
sists of flavoring tinctures, syrups, simple elixir, sugar, water, etc. 
It fulfills the command to cure pleasantly. 

Another, slightly different and preferable, method of subdivid- 
ing the inscription is as follows : 



The inscription consists of < 



base curare, 

adjuvant cito. 

corrective tuto, 

excipient, 1 

diluent, }**«»*■ 



The base, adjuvant, and corrective are as above, but, instead of a 
vehicle, there are two divisions: the excipient (excipiens, cutis, n.), 
which is added for the purpose of correcting objectionable organo- 
leptic properties (taste and smell), or to give a desirable con- 
sistence, as when a syrup or mucilage is added to a mixture to pre- 
vent a suspended powder from subsiding too rapidly ; and a dilu- 
ent (diluens, entis, n.), consisting of some medicinally inert sub- 
stance, which is used to dilute the more active ingredients, either 



170 THE PRESCRIPTION 

because it is physically impossible otherwise to divide the medicines 
into proper doses, or because it is undesirable to give the remedies 
in a concentrated form, or because the addition of the diluent al- 
lows us to adjust the doses for the use of one of the ordinary house- 
hold approximate measures, as the teaspoon or tablespoon. The 
corrective is also sometimes called a directive, as will be explained 
further on ; and in prescriptions for troches, pills, suppositories, 
etc., a conspergative (conspergens, entis, n., from the verb con- 
spergo, 3, to strew or sprinkle) is not infrequently employed. We 
may have, therefore, the following ingredients in a prescription: 
base, adjuvant or auxiliary, corrective or directive, excipient, dilu- 
ent, and conspergative, following each other in the order named. 
Instead of following each other in the above order, these dif- 
ferent parts of the prescription may be written in the order in 
which they are added to each other in compounding; but as this 
must vary according to the nature of the medicine to be dispensed, 
it requires a knowledge of pharmacy to write a prescription in this 
manner, and no rule can be given, but the method can only be il- 
lustrated by an example. The following prescription, from the 
' ' Companion to the United States Pharmacopoeia, ' ' illustrates this 
method sufficiently well, the parts being designated on the right in 
parentheses : 

R. Amygdalae olei dulcis, f3 vi {adjuvant). 

Acacias pulveris, {excipient). 

Aquae, ana quantum satis {diluent). 
ut fiant emulsi f? iii 
Adde 

Opii tincturas, f3 i {base). 

Bismuthi subcarbonatis, 3 i {adjuvant). 

Sacehari syrupi, f§ i {excipient). 

Misce. Signa : 

When the prescriber is familiar with the manner of compound- 
ing, this method of prescribing is very convenient, and preferable 
to the mere enumeration of the different parts of the prescription 
in a certain fixed sequence, but the latter plan is better when the 
physician is not familiar with pharmaceutical manipulations. 

The next part of the prescription is the subscription {subscriptio, 
onis, f ., from sub, under, and scriptio, writing) , which is the direc- 
tion to the pharmacist how to compound. This was formerly quite 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 171 

complicated, but is now exceedingly simple, often being contracted 
to the letter M only (misce, mix). The subscription needs no 
further mention now, but will be considered again further on. 

Then follows the signature (signatura, ce, f., the mark), which is 
the direction to the patient how to use the medicine, which is 
to be marked on the label by the dispenser. This should always be 
in the plain vernacular language, and should be put on the label 
with the same care and completeness as the different ingredients 
are put into the medicine to be dispensed. When the physician 
gives complete directions in the signature, and the druggist substi- 
tutes for them on the label the words, "to be used as directed," 
he is morally as responsible for an error or accident occurring in 
consequence as if he had substituted morphine for quinine. 

This concludes the prescription proper, after which, as already 
stated, should follow the full name and address of the physician, 
when the whole prescription is done. 

We will now consider the parts of the inscription somewhat 
more fully. 

The Base. 

When the physician has made his diagnosis, he determines what 
remedy will meet most of the indications of the case, and writes 
it down after the I>. This remedy being the mOst important, is 
to cure (curare), and is the ocr.se of the prescription. It is often the 
only ingredient, as when we prescribe tincture of muriate of iron, 
or solution of citrate of magnesium, or any single preparation, as 
in the following examples : 



Or, 



Or 



R Tincturse ferri chloridi, f| i. 

Signa : 20 drops three x daily. 

IJ Spiritus aetlieris compositi, 50 Cc. 

Signa: One teaspoonful, as indicated. 

B Pilulas ferri iodidi, XXIV. 

Signa: 1 pill morning and evening. 



When the base is sufficient to meet all the requirements of the 
case therapeutically, and is in such a shape that it can be admin- 
istered without the addition of any other substance, it is, of course, 



172 THE PRESCRIPTION 

unnecessary to add anything further. Paris, in his "Pharmaco- 
logia, " says on this subject: 

"Let it be distinctly and unequivocally understood that, unless 
a physician can satisfactorily explain the operation of each ele- 
ment in his prescription, * * * simplicity should ever be regarded 
as the greatest desideratum ; * * * he may be assured that, unless he 
be well acquainted with the mutual actions which bodies exert upon 
each other and upon the living system, it may be laid down as an 
axiom that, in proportion as he complicates a medicine, lie does but 
midtiply the chances of its failure. Let him cherish this maxim 
in his remembrance, and in forming compounds always discard 
from them every element which has not its mode of action clearly 
defined, unless, indeed, a general and paramount experience shall 
have stamped upon it the authentic seal of approval. 

"There is this marked distinction between the raw and well- 
disciplined practitioner, that while the one, seeing only a variety 
of unconnected symptoms, seeks to attack each by a separate in- 
gredient in his prescription, the other, by being enabled to group 
together such as arise from a single cause, diminishes in number 
and variety the points to be attacked, and simplifies his remedies 
in the same ratio. 

"The perfection of a medicinal prescription may be defined by 
three words. It should be precise (in its directions) , concise (in 
its construction), decisive (in its plan of operation). It should 
carry upon its very face an air of energy and decision, and speak 
intelligibly the indications which it is intended to fulfill. It may 
be laid down as a maxim, which is not in much danger of being 
controverted, that where the intention of a medicinal combination 
is obscure, its operation will be imbecile." 

Adjuvant. 

Bearing in mind, then, the undesirability of adding unneces- 
sarily to the base, there may yet be occasions when Ave can improve 
its action by the addition of another drug and thus accelerate the 
cure, as when we add senna to epsom salts in the popular "senna 
and salts." This second ingredient is to cure quickly (cito), and 
is called the adjuvant (which means assistant). 

Examples of adjuvants in prescriptions are quite common. 
Cathartics are often given in combination, assisting each other in 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 17.3 

action. It is very common to combine tonics, as when vegetable 
bitters are combined with iron ; and vegetable alteratives are com- 
monly added to the mercurials for specific diseases. 

If we combine two or more substances essentially similar in ac- 
tion — as, for instance, two cathartics, diuretics, etc. — the combina- 
tion will act more promptly and effectually than either one of the 
drugs alone. In such combinations the dose of each drug is pro- 
portionately less than if it were given without the other. 

In the following prescription we combine the tonic effects of qui- 
nine and iron, thus: 

IJ Quininffi sulphatis, gr. xx. 
Acidi citrici, q. s. 
Ferri et ammonii citratis, 3 i. 
Sacchari syrupi, f§ i. 
Aquae puras, f§ v. 
Misco. Fiat solntio. Signa: 



Or, 



R Quininse sulphatis, 1. Gm. 
Acidi citrici, q.s. 
Ferri phosphatis solubilis, 2. Gm. 
Elixiris aromatici, 100 Cc. 
Misce, Signa : 



Quinine may be considered as the base, iron as the adjuvant, 
citric acid as an excipient to dissolve, and syrup to improve the 
taste; while, lastly, water is a diluent for ease of administration 
and simple solution. 

B Opii pulveris, gr. iv. 

Hyoscyami extracti, 
Conii extracti, aa, gr. xii. 

Misce et divide in pilulas XII. 

Signa: 1 pill at bedtime. 

In this prescription several narcotics are combined, and in this 
form will frequently act better than when one alone is given. 
Opium, of course, is the base, and the other ingredients are ad- 
juvants. As these are soft, no special excipient is needed in. this 
case to make a pill mass, but some dry substance, as powdered 
liquorice root, may be required. 

An adjuvant need not necessarily be a drug having a therapeuti- 
cal effect similar to the base, but may belong to quite a different. 



'174 THE PRESCRIPTION 

class of the materia mediea, provided, of course, that the actions 
of the base and adjuvant will not interfere. 

A diuretic with a diaphoretic would not be a suitable combina- 
tion, because the two excretions antagonize, or at least complement 
each other ; diuresis being diminished when diaphoresis is increased, 
and vice versa. 

A powerful adjuvant in all cases, though not expressed in the 
prescription, is the diet we prescribe for our patients. It would be 
absurd to give "slop diet" with tonics, or beef tea and milk punch 
with antiphlogistics. 

Occasionally in febrile cases the pulse is full and hard, and the 
pressure within the vessels such that absorption can not take place 
readily. In such cases we may combine with our remedies a small 
quantity of some sedative or depressing agent, which will relax 
the system and, therefore, favor absorption. In the following pre- 
scription we have added for this purpose a small quantity of tar- 
tar emetic: 

IJ Magnesii sulphatis, 

Potassii et antimonii tartratis, 
Syrupi aeidi citrici, 
Aqua? purse, q. s. lit riant solutionis 
Misce. Signa: 

Or, 

I£ Sodii phosphatis, 
Tinctures veratri, 
Syrupi aurantii florum, 
Aquas, q.s. ad, 

M. S. Tablespoonful morning and evening. 

Tartar emetic, or veratrum viride, may frequently be added to 
cathartics, diaphoretics, and, in fact, to all eccritics or elimina- 
tives. 

Either of these remedies might also be given separately, as when 
we give tartar emetic to produce vomiting before administering 
quinine, for instance. The act of vomiting relaxes the system and 
the remedy will be absorbed more readily, so that in effect, if not 
in name, the tartar emetic would be an adjuvant to the quinine. 
Some of our "old-fashioned" practitioners are in the habit of com- 
mencing all their treatments with an emetic (or with a cathartic, 
which acts similarly, though weaker). It is probable that this 





Si. 


1 
1 


3jr. i. 




fgi. 


.s 


n iv. 


15 


. Gra 


5. 


Cc. 


20 


Cc. 


100 


Ce. 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 175 

treatment is a little too much neglected and undervalued at pres- 
ent, and that emetics deserve more frequent employment ; of course, 
it must not be a mere matter of routine to give them, but they must 
be indicated. 

The following familiar formulas for pills show the use of ad- 
juvants: 

Antibilious Pills (Vegetable). 

Extr. colocynth. comp., 2% grs. 
Besin, podophyll., % gr. (adjuvant). 

Dose: 1 to 4 pills. 

Alterative Pills. 

Extr. colocynth. comp., 1% grs. 

Pulv. rhei, 1% grs. (adjuvant). 

Pil. hydrarg., 1 gr. (adjuvant). 

01. carui, i/to drop. 
Dose: 1 to 3 pills. 

In the following "shot-gun prescription" it would be difficult to 
say which ingredient is the base, unless we simply assume the first 
mentioned to be such, although all are of about equal value. 

Neuralgic Pills (Brown-Sequard's) . 



Extr. hyoseyanri, 


% gr. 


Extr. conii, 


% gr. 


Extr. ignat. amar., 


V-2 gr. 


Extr. opii, 


% gr. 


Extr. aconiti fol., 


% gr. 


Extr. eannab. Indie, 


% gr. 


Extr. stramon., 


% gr- 


Extr. belladonn. fol., 


1/. err 


Dose: 1 pill. 





This might properly be said to be "all adjuvants." Experience 
occasionally teaches the value of such combinations, but as a rule 
we do better to avoid them. 

Corrective, or Directive. 

Occasionally either one or both of the above-described ingredients 
of a prescription possess some disagreeable physiological or thera- 
peutical effects, such as irritating, pungent taste, or a tendency to 
cause griping or nausea, etc., and we find it necessary to add a 
third ingredient to overcome such objectionable features. This 



176 THE PRESCRIPTION 

ingredient is to cure safely (tuto), and is called the corrective. 
Sometimes it is also called directive; for instance, when turpentine 
is given in a tablespoonful dose to expel lumbrici, it occasionally 
fails to act on the bowels, but acts on the kidneys, in which un- 
fortunate event it may produce serious injury, such as strangury, 
or even hematuria. We can correct this tendency to act on the kid- 
neys by directing the action of the turpentine to the bowels by add- 
ing castor oil. Spigelia may be given for the same object as turpen- 
tine, and usually purges ; if it fails to purge, it will act as a narcotic 
poison. We can correct the tendency to act as a poison by directing 
its action to the bowels by adding senna, whence the popular ' ' pink 
root and senna" combination. 

Some authorities have erroneously said that the adjuvant is 
sometimes called a directive, but a careful analysis of the action of 
this ingredient will show that in almost all cases in which a direc- 
tive action is obtained it is for the purpose of correcting a tendency 
to produce undesirable effects, and, therefore, that a directive is 
always a corrective, although a corrective is by no means always 
a directive. 

The corrective is less frequently employed than any of the 
other ingredients of the prescription, although Avhen indicated it 
is quite an important part of the prescription. 

R Cantharidis tineturae, f3 i. 

Amygdalae misturas, f 3 iii. 

M. S.: Dessertspoonful four times daily. 

In this prescription for chronic gleet the irritant properties of 
the cantharides are completely disguised by the demulcent almond 
emulsion, which acts both as corrective and as a diluent. 

IJ Hydrargyri chloridi mitis, gr. viii. 
Opii pulveris, gr. i. 

Saechari pulveris, 3 ss. 

Misee et divide in pulveres VIII. 

Such a combination of opium with calomel is frequently em- 
ployed when the mercurial is given in syphilis, and we desire to 
correct its tendency to purge, or to direct its action so as to pro- 
duce constitutional effects. 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 



177 



Compound Cathartic Pills {Improved). 
Extr. colocyntli. comp., \y 2 grs. 



Extr. jalap., 
Resin, podophyll., 
Resin, leptandrse, 
Extr. hyoscyami, 
Extr. gentian SB 
Ol. menth. pip., 
Dose: I to 3 pills. 



% gr. 

Vs gr. 

% gr- 

% gr. (corrective). 

V-2 gr. 

Vio drop. 



Mandrake Pills (Dr. E. R. Squibbs'] 

Resin, podophyll., 
Extr. belladonn. fol., 
Capsiei pulv., 

Dose: 1 or 2 pills. 



% gr. 

Vs gr. (corrective). 

V2 gr. 



Calomel and Rhubarb Pills. 

Hydrarg. chlorid. mit., % gr. 

Extr. rhei, % gr. 

Extr. colocyntli. comp., y 2 gr. 

Extr. hyoscyami, y G gr. (corrective). 
Dose: 1 to 3 pills. 

Aloes and Iron Pills. 



% gr. 

% gr. (corrective). 



Pulv. aloes socotr., 
Extr. conii, 
Ferri sulph. exsicc, 1 gr. 

Pulv. zingib. Jamaic, 1 gr. 
Dose: 1 to 3 pills. 

Aloes and Myrrh Pills (U. S. P.). 



Pulv. aloes socotr., 
Pulv. myrrh., 
Pulv. aromat., 
Dose: 3 to 6 pills. 



2 grs. 
1 gr. 
% gr- (corrective). 



Probably the best known examples of prescriptions containing 
a corrective can be seen in the many popular formulas for laxative 
pills, in which extracts of belladonna, hyoscyamus, or conium are 
used to correct the tendency of the cathartic ingredients to produce 
griping. These extracts are preferred to opium and similar nar- 
cotics, because they do not produce constipation, but rather promote 
the vermicular action of the intestines. 



178 THE PRESCRIPTION 

EXCJPEENT. 

The next ingredient in the prescription is the excipient, to cure 
pleasantly (jucunde). This may be added for the purpose of giv- 
ing a certain consistence to the medicine, as when we add syrup or 
mucilage to a mixture to prevent a too rapid subsidence of the in- 
soluble particles ; or when we add acacia to emulsify an oil ; or an 
adhesive substance to powders to make a pill mass. The excipient 
is also added for the purpose of rendering the preparation pleas- 
ant to the patient, as when we add aromatics, syrups, etc., to dis- 
guise the unpleasant taste of many of our remedies, or for improv- 
ing the smell or appearance. 

Much of the success of homoeopathy has been due to the pleas- 
antness of its remedies, and a careful attention to rendering the 
medicines as palatable and elegant as possible will add much to 
the physician's popularity. He should, therefore, pay due regard 
to making his medicines pleasant in taste, smell, and appearance. 

An excipient may be added for mechanical purposes, as when 
we write: 

IJ Quininae sulphatis, 2. 6m. 

Opii pulveris, 0.10 Gm. 

Gentianse extracti, q. s. 

Misee et divide in pilulas XVI. 

Consperge pulvere cinnamomi. 

In this prescription the extract of gentian is an excipient to pro- 
duce a certain consistency ; it enables us to make a mass with the 
other dry ingredients. Some authors say that in such prescrip- 
tions the choice of excipient may be left to the pharmacist, but an 
intelligent prescriber will not leave anything to the choice of an- 
other, but will make his prescription perfect and complete by 
naming every ingredient, excipient not excepted. It is, however, 
impossible always to state the exact amount of excipient required 
to make a mass, and the determination of the exact quantity may 
properly be left to the discretion of the dispenser, provided that 
the pharmaceutical requirements are such as to permit this with- 
out affecting the therapeutical characteristics of the finished prod- 
uct. When the determination of the quantity is left to the pharma- 
cist, this is indicated by omitting mention of a quantity after the 
ingredient, and writing, instead, the abbreviation q. s. (quantum 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 179 

satis; name of ingredient in the genitive ease). But q. s. must 
never be written when the pharmaceutical requirements do not fix 
the amount to he used. It would be wrong to use it, for instance, 
as follows : 

IJ Quininae sulphatis, 3 i. 

Ycrbse santse syrupi, q. s. 

Misco ct signa: Tablcspoonful every two hours. 

If the druggist took 1 fluidounce, the dose of quinine would be 
30 grains ; and if he took 6 fluidounces, the dose would be only 5 
grains; and there is nothing in the prescription to assist him in 
determining the amount. 

An excipient is also used for a mechanical purpose when we 
order a dry and insoluble powder to be dispensed, suspended in 
a liquid. We then add syrup or mucilage to render the liquid 
viscid, so that the powder will subside but slowly, as in the 
following : 

B Bismuthi subcarbonatis, 3 ii. 

Cretse misturae. 

Acacia; syrupi, ail, f3 iss. 

Miscc. 

Such a preparation is often called a "shake mixture," and a 
label with the direction, "to be well shaken," may he pasted on 
the vial, just above or below the regular label. 

Instead of using syrup or mucilage, we may order powdered 
gum arabic, which is mixed with the other powders, and then the 
water or other diluent is slowly added during constant stirring. 

The disagreeable taste of many preparations may be greatly 
improved by the choice of a proper excipient; but taste should 
not be rendered more agreeable at the expense of efficiency, 
unless the patient absolutely refuses to take the more disagreeable 
and active preparation. 

The bitter preparations can not be greatly improved by syrups, 
for the sweetish-bitter taste becomes nauseous to many. Aro- 
matics will usually be' better for the pui*pose. 

Alkaline, sour, or salty preparations may be sweetened with 
syrups. Acrid and pungent substances may be dispensed in 
mucilages and syrups. Nauseous drugs are rendered more 
agreeable by the addition of volatile oils, bitters, or aromatics, 



180 THE PRESCRIPTION 

while insipid medicines may be flavored with aromatic, sweet, sour, 
or bitter excipients. 

Modern elegant pharmacy has enriched our materia medica 
with many very palatable preparations, such as wine of beef and 
iron, elixirs of various kinds, syrups, wines, malt preparations, 
and numerous other combinations in which pleasant flavor, taste, 
and appearance are united with effectiveness and ready assim- 
ilability. Gdreat differences exist in these regards, however, be- 
tween the preparations of the same name made by different 
makers, and the physician will do well to use judicious discretion 
in choosing between them. Many of the preparations of this 
kind, such as compound elixir of taraxacum, aromatic elixir, 
elixir of licorice, syrup of yerba santa, etc., are very good ex- 
cipients to be added to extemporaneous prescriptions; those men- 
tioned here disguising almost completely the disagreeable taste 
of even as bitter a remedy as quinine. 

If quinine is dispensed in a mixture with aromatic syrup of 
rhubarb, chocolate, licorice, compound elixir of taraxacum, or 
elixir of wild cherry bark, or with any other excipient, to disguise 
its taste, no acid should be added, as these substances will not 
be able in that case to overcome the intense bitterness of the drug. 

While attention is paid to taste and flavor, the appearance must 
not be neglected. Frequently some coloring substances — for in- 
stance, compound tincture of lavender, or compound tincture of 
cardamom — will give an attractive appearance, where otherwise 
this might not be so. A patient is usually a very fastidious per- 
son, and will take a pleasant remedy much more willingly than 
one that is repulsive both to the eye and to the taste. 

The conspergative in prescriptions for pills is really a form of 
excipient, specified in the prescription in order that the pills may 
have the same flavor and taste, wherever and by whomsoever they 
may be compounded. Strictly speaking, a gelatin or sugar coat- 
ing is also an excipient. 

The Diluent. 

The last ingredient in a complete prescription is the diluent, 
which has no therapeutical value, and is added merely for me- 
chanical reasons. It is added, as the name implies, to dilute 
the more active ingredients, and may be either solid or liquid. 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 181 

It is most useful in adjusting doses, making up the desired quan- 
tity, or when the dose of the remedy is so small that it can not 
by itself be weighed out into doses at all, as when we try to 
divide 1 grain of strychnine into 100 doses. Here, of course, we 
must add some other ingredient to make the whole bulky enough 
to allow of division. 

1} Morphinse sulphatis, gr. i. 

Sacehari albi, 3 ss. (diluent). 
Misce et divide in pulveres VIII. Signa: 



R Morphines sulphatis, gr. i. 

Glycyrrhizse pulveris, gr. viii (diluent). 

Gentianse extracti, q. s. 
Misce et divide in pilulas VIII. Signa: 

IJ Morphinse sulpliatis, gr. i. 

Aquse menthae piperita?, f § i (diluent). 
Fiat solutio. Signa 

In the above three examples we see the use of both liquid and 
solid diluents, added for the purpose of enabling us to divide 1 
grain of morphine into doses of % grain each. One powder, 1 
pill, or 1 teaspoonful of the solution, each, contain that dose. 

The same ingredient often answers both as excipient and di- 
luent, as when we dissolve various chemicals in simple or aro- 
matic elixir, as in the following example : 

IJ Quininse sulphatis, 2. Gm. 
Fluidextracti glycyrrhizse, 20 Cc. 
Elixiris adjuvantis, ad 100 Cc. 
M. S 



Or, 



R Quininse sulphatis, 3 i. 

Elixiris taraxaci compositi, f§ iv. 
Misce et signa: Tablespoonful every four hours. 



Here the compound elixir of taraxacum answers the double 
purpose of diluting for ease of administering the doses and as 
an excipient to disguise the bitter taste of the quinine, and it 
will be found more convenient to use the term "vehicle" in a 
case of this kind. 

The determination of the amount of diluent to be added de- 
pends upon the number and size of the doses we wish to give. 
If we determine, for instance, to give twelve doses of 30 grains 



182 THE PRESCRIPTION 

each of bromide of potassium every two hours, in elixir of orange 
peel, we will at once see that a teaspoonful dose will not answer our 
purpose, because the salt can scarcely be dissolved in this small 
quantity of fluid, and, if it could, it would be too concentrated 
a solution to taste well. A dessertspoonful — or, still better, a 
tablespoonful — dose will be more pleasant, and Ave therefore add 
enough of the vehicle to the 6 drains of the bromide to make 12 
tablespoonfuls or 6 fluidounces, as follows : 

R Potassii bromidi, 3 vi. 

Elixiris aurantii corticis, f 5 vi. 

Fiat solutio. Signa : Tablespoonful every two hours. 
This is really a little more than 6 fluidounces, as the dissolved 
salt occupies some little space; but Avhen the quantity of the salt 
or other dissolved material is small, we ignore this little inac- 
curacy, and mention a definite quantity of diluent or vehicle. 
But when the total bulk of a number of salts, tinctures, and other 
ingredients is appreciable in quantity, but not readily ascertained, 
or when, to make an even total volume, the quantity of diluent 
would have to be expressed in fractions of drams or ounces other 
than halves, it is preferable not to state the quantity of diluent 
or vehicle in the prescription, but to Avrite "q. s. " after it, as 
in the following example : 

1} Magnesii sulphatis, § i- 

Podophylli extracti fluidi, f 3 ii. 

Ehei syrupi, fB ss. 

Aquae q. s. ut ft. sol. f § iv. 

M. S.: 

The more usual form of expressing this is shown in the next 
form of the same prescription. 

R Magnesii sulphatis, 5 i. 

Podophylli extracti fluidi, f 3 ii. 

Rhei syrupi, fj$ ss. 

Aquam ad f5 iv. 

M. S.: 

The word "ad" means that enough of the ingredient be taken 
"up to" or "to make" the quantity which follows the word "ad," 
In the above example the epsom salt, fluid extract of mandrake, 
and syrup of rhubarb are to be placed in the vial and enough 
water is then added to make the 4-ounce solution. 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 183 

As there seems to be a great deal of misunderstanding about 
the use and meaning of the word "ad," it has been suggested by 
some to discard its use in prescriptions altogether, but it would 
seem to be absurd to drop an exceedingly expressive and con- 
venient term for the purpose of accommodating ourselves to the 
ignorance of others. A better plan is to use the word only in 
connection with the abbreviation "q. s.," which would make the 
last line of the last example read thus: 
Aquae q. s. ad. f % iv. 

Used in this manner, it is hardly possible that any one should 
misunderstand the meaning of this convenient preposition. 

The choice of diluent should never be left to the dispenser, 
but should always be expressed in the prescription, so that the 
prescription may always be compounded in exactly the same man- 
ner. 

Combination of Remedies. 

It will prove of great interest and value to the reader to care- 
fully study the classical work of Dr. Paris, entitled "Pharma- 
cologia, " but as this work is out of print and very scarce, and, 
therefore, inaccessible to most readers, no apology is needed for 
inserting here the following synopsis of the chapter from Dr. 
Paris' work, which bears the heading, "An Analysis of the 
Objects to be Attained by Mixing and Combining Medicinal 
Substances." 

Medicines are combined to achieve different results : 

I. TO PROMOTE THE ACTION OF THE BASIS OR PRINCIPAL MEDICINE. 

A. By combining several different forms, or preparations, of 
the same substance. 

This is of use when the chemical nature of the medicinal sub- 
stance will not admit of the full solution of all its active prin- 
ciples in any one solvent, and its exhibition in substance is in- 
eligible. Example : Liquor iodi compositus, in which iodine and 
iodide of potassium both are necessary to effect proper solution. 
Uguentum iodi illustrates the same truth. 

B. By combining the basis with substances of the same na- 
ture — that is, which are individually capable of producing similar 



184 THE PRESCRIPTION 

effects, but with less certainty or energy than when in combi- 
nation with each other. 

Dr. Paris says that Dr. Fordyce first proved that a combination 
of similar remedies will produce a more certain, speedy, and 
considerable effect than an equivalent dose of any single one. 

A number of examples have already been given. This fact 
is especially observable in regard to the action of 

(a) narcotics; 

( b ) bitter tonics ; 

(c) aromatics; 

(d) astringents; 

(e) emetics (as ipecac with tartar emetic) ; 
(/) antispasmodics (as valerian with ether) ; 
(ft) cathartics; 

(7i) diuretics (as digitalis with acetate of potassium) ; 

(i) diaphoretics; 

(j) expectorants (as senega with squill) ; 

It is not so advisable in the case of diffusible stimulants, because, 
by giving them singly, we may economize our resources in linger- 
ing diseases. This is also occasionally true in regard to nar- 
cotics, enabling us to avoid the continual increase of dose and, 
possibly, consequent establishment of habit by now and then 
changing from one narcotic to another. 

C. By combining the basis with substances of a different na- 
ture, and which do not exert any chemical influence upon it, but 
are found by experience to be capable of rendering the stomach, 
or system, or any particular organ, more susceptible of its action. 

Examples have been already given, as when tartar emetic in 
nauseant doses promotes subsequent absorption of quinine, etc. 
Changes of diet or habits also illustrate this point. 

II. TO CORRECT THE OPERATION OF THE BASIS BY OBVIATING ANY 
UNPLEASANT EFFECTS IT MIGHT BE LIKELY TO OCCASION, AND WHICH 
WOULD PERVERT ITS INTENDED ACTION AND DEFEAT THE OBJECTS OF 
ITS EXHIBITION. 

A. By mechanically separating, or chemically neutralizing, the 
offending ingredient. 

Illustrated in deodorized tincture of opium (separation of 
narcotine and odorous matter). 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 185 

B. By adding some substance capable of guarding the stomach 
or system against its deleterious effects. 

Instances: Small doses of opium added to emetics will not pre- 
vent emesis, but will prevent excessive depression and nausea ; 
mucilages with pungent substances; castor oil with turpentine 
when given as an anthelmintic ; etc. 

III. TO OBTAIN THE JOINT OPERATION OF TWO OR MORE MEDICINES. 

A. By combining those substances which are calculated to pro- 
duce the same ultimate effects, although by totally different modes 
of operation. 

Example: Digitalis and acetate of potassium combined in a 
diuretic draught; opium and ipecac in Dover's powder, etc. 

B. By combining medicines which have entirely different powers, 
and which are required to obviate different symptoms, or to answer 
different indications. 

(a) exhilarants with tonics ; 

( b ) antispasmodics with tonics, or narcotics ; 

(c) narcotics with excitants (as opium with camphor, in pare- 
goric, or opium with capsicum) ; 

(d) narcotics with mercurial alteratives; 

(e) topics with purgatives; 
(/) astringents with tonics ; 

(g) astringents with diaphoretics (as tincture of catechu with 
tincture of ipecac and opium) ; 

(h) astringents with antacids (as chalk mixture with tincture 
of kino) ; 

(i) astringents with narcotics ( as acetate of zinc with laudanum 
for injection) ; 

(j) purgatives with narcotics and antispasmodics (as opium 
with sulphate of magnesium in lead colic) ; 

(k) purgatives with excitants and tonics (as ginger with senna, 
compound extract of colocynth with nux vomica, etc.) ; 

(I) purgatives with mercurial alteratives (as aloes with cal- 
omel) ; 

(to) purgatives with diaphoretics (not often used) ; 

(n) diuretics with tonics; 

(o) diuretics with excitants (as squill with carbonate of ammo- 
nium) ; 



186 THE PRESCRIPTION 

(p) diuretics with alterants; 

(q) diaphoretics with tonics; 

(r) expectorants with tonics; 

(s) expectorants with excitants (as senega with carbonate of 
ammonium or camphor) ; 

(t) antacids with carminatives, tonics, purgatives, or sedatives; 

(u) antilithics with narcotics, diaphoretics, or tonics. 

No rules can be given for these various combinations, but the 
physician must have a thorough knowledge of materia medica and 
therapeutics, together with varied experience and good powers 
of observation, to make the best use of such combinations. Dr. 
Paris says that a work may give a general idea of the subject, but 
practice and experience alone give full possession of it. 

IV. TO OBTAIN A NEW REMEDY NOT AFFORDED BY ANY SINGLE SUB- 
STANCE. 

A. By associating medicines which excite different actions in the 
stomach and system,, in consequence of which new or modified re- 
sults are produced. 

Example : Opium is narcotic and ipecac is emetic ; pulvis ipecacu- 
anhce et opii is diaphoretic. 

B. By combining substances which have the property of acting 
chemically upon each other, the residt of which is the formation of 
new compounds, or the decomposition of one or more of the original 
ingredients and the development of their more active elements. 

Examples : Black wash ; yellow wash ; solution of citrate of mag- 
nesium; etc. 

C. By combining substances between which no other chemical 
change is induced than a diminution or increase in the solubilities 
of those principles which are the repositories of their medicinal 
virtues. 

Examples: Adding acids to the water when making decoction 
of cinchona, or acetic acid to solution of acetate of lead. 

V. TO AFFORD AN ELIGIBLE FORM. 

A. By which the efficacy of the medicine is enhanced. 
Example : Subnitrate of bismuth acts better when given in a 

mixture with mucilage than Avhen given in pill form. 

B. By which its aspect or flavor is rendered less objectionable. 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 187 

C. By which it is preserved from spontaneous decomposition, or 
any other chemical change. 

Examples : Iodide of iron is preserved by the sugar in the syrup ; 
sugar in Vallet's mass; boric or salicylic acids as anti-fermentatives. 

Perhaps no man more carefully analyzed the relations of in- 
gredients in prescriptions to each other than did Dr. Paris, and by 
studying the above abstract from his work in connection with what 
was previously said, and then practicing by analyzing in like man- 
ner the prescriptions on a druggist's prescription file, or in some 
formulary, the reader may soon acquire a thorough knowledge of 
the combinations useful in prescriptions. 

Subscription and Signature. 

The subscription or instruction to the druggist is generally very 
simple, as it is presumed that the pharmacist knows his business 
and does not require minute instructions. 

Generally the abbreviations for subcsription and signature are 
written in one line, "M. S. ;" the letter "M." (misce) implying 
all the manipulations necessary to compound the prescription, and 
the letter "S." (signa) directing the druggist to label as follows. 

Sometimes this abbreviation is written "M. D. S. ;" which means 
"misce, da, signa" (mix, give, and sign) ; or, better, "misce, detur 
signatura" (mix, let it be given with the signature). 

The signatura, or direction for the patient's guidance in using 
the medicine, should always, if possible, be written in the language 
best understood by the patient or his attendants, or otherwise in 
plain English ; never in Latin. Complicated Latin subscriptions 
and signatures are obsolete in this country. 

Finally, the prescription should contain the name of the phy- 
sician, his full address and his office hours, that a druggist may 
consult him if any error should have occurred in writing the pre- 
scription. 

The methods of writing the subscriptions for special preparations 
will be considered further on under the appropriate headings. 

Doses. 

The dose of a drug, as stated in the works on materia medica, 
is generally understood to be that quantity which will produce the 
full effect of the remedy. 



188 THE PRESCRIPTION 

The dose of opium, for instance, is stated to be 1 grain, and this 
is the quantity usually required to produce sleep or to relieve 
pain in an adult patient. This dose may be given at once, or 
in divided portions — sometimes called "fractional doses" — at cer- 
tain intervals, according to the effect required. Opium is better 
given in full doses if we desire to produce sleep ; in fractional 
doses to relieve pain. 

Or quinine is better given in a full dose as an antipyretic, and 
in broken or fractional doses as an antiperiodic, or as a tonic. 

Some medicines especially of the class of haematics, exert no 
appreciable effect from the single medicinal dose, and then the 
frequency of repetition is ordered after the dose, as when we 
say, the "dose of tincture of chloride of iron is from 10 to 30 
minims, which may gradually be increased to 1 or even 2 flui- 
drams, two or three times a day." (United States Dispensatory.) 

The doses as given in the books, are for adult males in the 
prime of life. Females, aged persons, and youths require some- 
what smaller doses ; children much smaller doses. The condition 
of the individual will have much to do in determining the dose, 
as some women may be stronger than some men, etc. Tempera- 
ment, disposition, idiosyncrasies, condition of pregnancy, lacta- 
tion, etc., all must be considered, not only in the choice of the 
medicine, but also in the choice of the dose. 

Doses for Children. 

Children require considerably smaller doses than adults, but 
there is no perfectly accurate rule by which to fix the doses for 
the little patients. The best and most frequently employed rule, 
which gives approximately good results, is Young's, and is as 
follows : 

"Divide the age of the child, in years, ~by the age of the child 
plus twelve." 

If the age is four years, the dose is 4X12=35 = ^T- Tlle close of 
a child of four years is, therefore, one-fourth that of an adult. 

Dr. E. 0. Cowling's rule is to add^ to the age of the child in 
years, and divide by 24. If the child is 3 years old, add 1, which 
makes 4, and divide by 24, which gives % 4 , or %. 

Dr. E. H. Clark assumes 150 pounds to be the average weight of 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 189 

an adult and to require the unit of dose. Persons weighing 1 more 
or less require proportionately more or less medicine at each dose ; 
therefore, divide the weight of the person in pounds by 150 to 
learn the dose. A person 200 pounds heavy would require 20 %5o> 
or % of the ordinary unit of dose. A child 30 pounds heavy 
would require :m Ar,o, or %, of the unit of dose. 

Unusually Large Doses. 

Occasionally apparently excessive quantities of dangerous 
remedies are prescribed, as of morphine in the case of opium- 
eaters, or of opium in cases of delirium tremens or of peritonitis, 
etc. To avoid delay, on account of justifiable hesitation on the 
part of the pharmacist to put up such prescriptions, the physi- 
cian should write the quantity both in Latin numerals and in 
words, the latter either in English or Latin, in parentheses, thus: 

R Opii pulv., gr. iv (four grains). 

Tart, emetic, gr. ii (two grains). 

Sacch. alb., gr. x. 

M. et div. in pulv. III. 
S.: One powder every hour. 

This shows that the large doses are not written by error, but 
deliberately and knowingly, and the pharmacist would be justified 
in putting up the medicine unhesitatingly. 

Apparently excessive doses may also be designated by placing 
an exclamation mark in parentheses after the quantity, but care 
should be taken to write plainly, so that this mark may not be 
confounded with the Roman numerals. It has been suggested 
to underscore the large quantity, but this is not a good plan, be- 
cause the stroke of a "t, " in the next line below, may be acci- 
dentally written under an unintentionally excessive dose, and 
may lead the druggist to consider it all right, and an accident may 
be the result. The first-mentioned method is plainest and, there- 
fore, best. 

Apparent Discrepancy in Stating Doses. 

In a pharmaceutical journal there was published some time ago 
an article by a pharmacist which presents a subject for considera- 
tion that is often ignored or not properly understood. This writer 



190 THE PRESCRIPTION 

said that pharmacists, not physicians, should fix the doses of 
pharmaceutical preparations, as they were better acquainted with 
the percentage strength of the various preparations. This view 
is held by many pharmacists, and, while it is not the province 
of these pages to treat at length on this subject, a few words will 
not be out of place. The above-quoted assertion shows that the 
writer did not understand the principles that govern the deter- 
mination of doses, for many questions of therapeutics and pharmacy, 
besides the mere consideration of percentage proportions, are in- 
volved. 

In Bartholow's work on Materia Medica and Therapeutics the 
following; doses of two preparations of ipecac are given, and the 
number of grains of the drug contained in each dose is added in 
parentheses : 

Fluid extract of ipecac. Dose: Tn_ ii — 3i (2 — 60 grs.). 
Wine of ipecac. Dose: Tt\ i — 3 i (y Ui — 4 grs.). 

. Any given volume of wine of ipecac contains only about %6 as 
much of the drug as an equal quantity of fluid extract of ipecac, 
yet the smallest dose stated is only half as large, or contains %2 
as much ipecac as the smallest stated dose of fluid extract, while 
the largest dose of the wine given by this author is of equal 
volume as that of the fluid extract, but contains only % 6 as much 
ipecac. 

Now, according to the views of the writer mentioned above, this 
shows lamentable ignorance on the part of Bartholow, and the 
work of fixing the doses should have been delegated to a pharma- 
cist. That Bartholow knew this difference in strength is shown 
by his calling attention to it himself; nevertheless he gives the 
above doses. The truth is, these two preparations are used for en- 
tirely different purposes; and, in fact, the differences in action be- 
tween large and small doses of ipecac is almost as great as if they 
were two different remedies. Ipecac in large doses (15 to 60 
grains) is used as an emetic, or in some cases, and with due pre- 
cautions, as an anti-dysenteric remedy; in small doses (% to 2 or 
3 grains) as expectorant and nauseant, and in some intestinal 
troubles of children. For the emetic effects the fluid extract or 
powder is used; for the other effects, in cough mixtures, etc., the 
milder syrup or wine is preferred. We would not waste 2 fluid- 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 191 

ounces of good sherry wine to give 1 dram of ipecac as an emetic. 
especially as the dilution would delay the action; and when wc 
do not wish the emetic effects we make the remedy more pleasant 
with syrup or wine ; and the doses of the preparations quoted 
in the works on therapeutics are the doses an intelligent and edu- 
cated physician makes use of, for the purposes for which the 
preparation is best adapted. Numerous similar instances might 
be quoted, but the above are enough to show that the apparent 
discrepancies in the doses of different pharmaceutical preparations 
of the same drug are not due to ignorance of the composition on 
the part of physicians, but are based rather on long experience 
and sound therapeutical knowledge, and an appreciation of these 
facts enables the physician to choose intelligently from among 
these various preparations. 

Cases have no doubt come to the knowledge of every one in 
which the patient was treated by one physician for a length of 
time unsuccessfully, and then promptly recovered under a change 
of physicians; and yet both physicians used the same remedies. 
This is often ascribed to "faith," or "imagination," on the part 
of the patient, and occasionally this may be the explanation, but 
in most such cases it is due to greater knowledge on the part of 
the second physician, who, by judicious choice of preparations and 
doses, is able to produce gradations and modifications of effects of 
which some physicians and many pharmacists seem to have no 
idea. A physician may write grammatically faultless prescrip- 
tions, and yet fail to produce the desired effects if he has neglected 
the study of the subject suggested in this paragraph. 

Prescribing. 

When the physician has carefully examined the patient and 
arrived at a diagnosis, if such is possible at the time of the exam- 
ination, the next thing is to determine on a plan of treatment, and 
to write the prescription. The latter should not be done until 
after a full examination, as it destroys the confidence of the pa- 
tient if the physician commences to write the prescription and 
then throws it aside, half-finished, upon hearing the patient state a 
symptom not before mentioned. The patient is excusable, under 
such circumstances, if he thinks the physician hasty and careless, 
and that he does not fully understand the case; or, if he begins 



192 THE PRESCRIPTION 

three or four prescriptions before finishing -one, it gives the pa- 
tient the impression that he is ignorant and undecided in regard 
to the proper treatment; and in either case he need not be sur- 
prised if he never sees his patient a second time. 

Having determined, as far as possible, the nature of the case, 
we determine wliat to give. This our knowledge of materia medica 
and therapeutics enables us to do, and base, adjuvant, corrective 
or directive, excipient, and diluent are all mentally determined 
on. Then comes the question, Tiow, or in what form, to give. 
This is by no means a subordinate question, for the efficacy and 
promptness of our treatment often depend upon the determina- 
tion of this point. 

As a general rule, we may remember that medicines dispensed 
in a fluid form act most promptly and surely, and in the pill form 
most slowly, if not most unsatisfactorily. Whenever the powers 
of assimilation are low or interfered with by the disease, or 
when the symptoms are urgent, it is folly to give solid prepara- 
tions, unless they are almost instantaneously soluble in water or 
in the gastric juice. Powders and pills that require time to dis- 
solve or digest, often lose us our patients, when the same remedies 
in fluid form might have saved them. The writer 's experience has 
been that the fluid extracts are usually the best form in which to 
administer drugs when promptness and certainty of action are 
desired. 

When the remedy may be given in several forms — as, for instance, 
in solution, pills, or powders — without sacrifice of efficiency, we 
may give to our patient a choice of these preparations, as in- 
dividual tastes differ in this regard, some preferring pills or 
powders, while others prefer solutions. 

The next question is, Jiow much to give. This, also, depends on 
many different circumstances. Some remedies are given in a 
single dose, as emetics, cathartics, etc. ; while others, such as tonics, 
etc., are given in divided doses, more or less frequently repeated. 
In the latter case we should give such a quantity, that, if the pa- 
tient takes the remedy according to our directions, it will be suf- 
ficient from one of our visits to the next. The number of hours in 
a day during which a patient will take medicine averages about 
sixteen, as the other eight hours are consumed in sleep. It is very 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 193 

seldom necessary to rouse a patient to take medicine, as sleep is 
generally of as much importance as drugs. 

Dividing sixteen by the number of hours of interval between 
the administration of the separate doses, and adding one, we find 
the number of doses to be given for each day; it is then easy to 
determine the total number of doses from one of our visits to the 
next. If we visit the patient on alternate days, and he takes a dose 
of medicine every three hours, he will take six doses (16-=-3=5; 
5-|-l=6) in one day; and we will, therefore, prescribe twelve 
doses at each visit. In such calculations we, of course, ignore 
fractions. 

This calculation is only approximately correct, as the patient 
may sleep more or less than eight hours, or his tablespoon may 
contain less than %-ounce, etc. ; so that we need not be so very 
exact in this calculation of the number of doses. 

It is very much to the disadvantage and injury of the physician 
if he prescribes large quantities of medicines — for which the pa- 
tient must pay, of course — and then at the next visit orders the 
use of the remedy to be discontinued, though scarcely half is taken, 
and prescribes something else. 

It quite frequently happens that a -row of half-empty vials and 
boxes adorns the patient's table, looking, as the patient sometimes 
expresses himself, "like a small drug store." This is justly re- 
garded by people in moderate or poor circumstances as a waste for 
which there is no excuse, and which they can illy afford. If the 
physician dispenses his own remedies, they will suspect him of 
an effort to increase the bill unnecessarily ; or, if he does not dis- 
pense medicines himself, they will think he is paid a percentage 
on his prescriptions by the druggist. This, of course, no reputable 
physician will stoop to take, and the pharmaceutical profession 
has no very flattering opinion of the men who are avaricious and 
mean enough to ask percentages. 

In the struggle for existence only the fittest should survive, and 
when a physician or a druggist can not exist without receiving or 
paying percentages he ought to learn a trade, or do something to 
earn an honest livelihood. 

There may not be any improper motive in prescribing too large 
quantities of medicines, and it may be simply from a want of re- 
flection, or from thoughtlessness, yet the physician who is in the 



194 THE PRESCRIPTION 

habit of prescribing a fresh remedy before the old is taken will 
surely suffer in his practice. 

Unforeseen symptoms may occasionally arise which will call 
for a change of remedies, and in such an exceptional case, of 
course, the above considerations should not prevent us from mak- 
ing the change. 

When writing a prescription, we first write the names of the 
drugs or ingredients in their proper order ; for example, when 
called to prescribe for a child suffering with ' ' summer complaint, ' ' 
and we wish to give powders, each containing 1 grain of mercury 
with chalk, y 2 grain of Dover's powder, 2 grains of subnitrate of 
bismuth, and 4 grains of sugar — 1 powder to be given every two 
hours, and the visit to be repeated next day — we will write : 

R Hydrargyri cum ereta, 

Pulveris ipecacuanha? compositi, 

Bismuthi subnitratis, 

Sacchari albi, 
Misce et divide in pulveres 
Signa: 1 powder every two hours. 

Now, we calculate sixteen hours a day for taking medicine, and 
two hours interval between 'doses (16 '+ 2=8 ; 8 + 1=9) ; nine doses 
to be given. 

In prescribing powders (or, in fact, any other preparation) it 
is customary to employ only even numbers to express a number 
of doses greater than three; we, therefore, give eight or ten doses. 
Suppose we give ten doses. We write the numeral X after the 
word pulveres in the subscription, and then multiply the intended 
dose of each ingredient by ten, writing the quantities thus ascer- 
tained after the respective names, and the prescription is as fol- 
lows : 

R. Hydrargyri cum creta, gr. x. 

Pulveris ipecacuanha? compositi, gr. v. 

Bismuthi subnitratis, gr. xx. 

Sacchari albi, gr. xl. 
Misce et divide in pulveres X. 
Signa: 1 powder every two hours. 

We must be careful, however, to write the required quantity 
of each drug after the name of that drug, and not after some other 
name. Suppose that we intended to give % P art of a grain of 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 195 

strychnine and 2 grains of quinine in pill form in each pill, it 
would not be "quite the tiling" to change the quantities, thus: 

R Strychninae sulphatis, ® iv. 

Quininse sulphatis, gr. i. 

Mucilaginis tragacanthse, q. s. 
Misce et divide in pilulas XL. 

Such carelessness might lead to very serious results ; for, al- 
though the above is perhaps an exaggerated example, mistakes of 
this kind do sometimes occur. While the above method of writing 
a prescription is usually employed, this should preferably all be 
done and calculated mentally, the drugs, together with their order 
and quantities, being determined before commencing to write. 
In such a case the prescription is written out in full at once. 

When the quantity of any ingredient is near some such weight 
as a scruple, dram, or ounce, a half-scruple, half-dram, or half- 
ounce, or some multiple of these quantities, we prefer to use the 
sign for such quantities instead of the exact number of grains. 
We also prefer to say 3ss, rather than 9 iss, or gr. xxx. The sign 
§ss is chosen rather than oiv, etc. ; just as we would say one dollar, 
and not ten dimes, or one hundred cents. 

When writing a prescription for any other preparation, liquid 
or solid, we proceed just as for powders; first determining the 
drugs, then the number of doses, then the total quantities desired. 

Having finished the prescription we carefully read it over, as- 
suring ourselves of the correctness of our doses and calculations, 
and then we give it to the patient, giving him full oral instruc- 
tions how to use the medicines, besides ordering plain directions 
to be written on the label. 

Some physicians are in the habit of writing prescriptions in 
which they designate the ingredients by unusual names, not un- 
derstood by every pharmacist, thus forcing the patient to go to a 
druggist who has come to an agreement with the physician in 
regard to these private formulas. The patient is thus, perhaps, 
compelled to go a great distance to a druggist in whom he places 
no confidence, and who will charge high prices for simple sub- 
stances because the patient can not have the prescription com- 
pounded elsewhere. Such collusions between the druggist and 
physician are entered into for the purpose of cheating the pa- 



196 THE PRESCRIPTION 

tient, and such behavior is unprofessional, and parties thereto 
are guilty of quackery and fraud. 

Influences Modifying Action of Medicines. 

Works on therapeutics give information in regard to many in- 
fluences which modify the action of medicines and the size of 
doses, all of which must be borne in mind when prescribing. 

We have already referred to age as regulating the sizes of 
doses. But it also must be considered as regards action of medi- 
cines. Opiates and narcotics, cathartics, and many other remedies 
are either not given to children at all, or only in very small 
doses, far less in proportion than as ascertained by the rules al- 
ready given; while on the other hand, calomel is borne in pro- 
portionately larger doses without producing salivation. 

The sex of the patient also exerts a great influence on the ac- 
tion of medicines. The general rule that women require smaller 
doses than men was probably based on an empirical experience, 
which was afterward formulated by Dr. Clark into a rule, already 
quoted, according to which the unit of dose is to be given to pa- 
tients weighing 150 pounds, and larger or smaller doses in pro- 
portion to the greater or lesser weight of the patients. As the 
average weight of women is less than the average weight of men, 
the average doses for women are also less; but a definite rule, ap- 
plicable to individual cases, has never been formulated, and prob- 
ably can not be formulated. Some authors, however, have stated 
that neurotics, or nerve remedies, and cathartics, especially if of 
the gastro-intestinal irritant class, must be given with greater 
caution to women than to men. 

Perhaps much of the difference of the action of medicines, as 
exerted upon persons of different sexes, is due less to the sex 
than to the different habits of women and men. As a rule, men 
use liquors, tobacco, spices, sauces, and other stimulating articles 
of food or drink to a much greater extent than women do; the 
latter generally preferring more insipid or simply sweet food and 
drink. Therefore, when we prescribe remedies to affect the nerves 
or alimentary canal, the man, who is used to the habitual stimu- 
lation of these organs, will not be affected by the same doses that 
would probably act violently on most women. The habits of the 
individual, therefore, have a greater modifying effect on the ac- 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 197 

tion of medicines than the sex. Habit, indeed, may enable a 
person to consume immense quantities of some drugs, as we see 
in the tolerance of opium, arsenic, and other remedies, in those 
who are addicted to these vicious "habits." The long-continued 
use of almost any remedy will accustom the patient to its use, 
and necessitate continually increasing doses, unless the use of the 
remedy is occasionally discontinued. 

The time of day when to administer medicine is sometimes of 
importance. Thus, most cathartics should be given late at night, so 
that they may commence and finish their expected action during 
next day. It is not advisable to disturb the sleep of the patient, 
or compel him to get out of bed to go to the closet, as by so doing 
he may "take cold," and more mischief than good may follow 
the use of the remedy. 

Many remedies may irritate an empty stomach which would be 
easily borne on a full stomach, or at least before the meal is 
totally digested. Cod-liver oil is better tolerated when taken with 
a meal than when taken on an empty stomach. Of course, such 
remedies as pepsin, alkalies, acids, etc., given before or immedi- 
ately after meals to influence the digestion of the food, would do 
little or no good if given when the stomach is empty. Generally, 
large doses of most medicines are best given two or three hours 
after meals ; cathartics, narcotics, and hypnotics in the evening ; 
saline purgatives and diuretics, especially in the form of mineral 
waters, in the morning; etc. 

The season of the year also influences us in the choice of rem- 
edies and doses. In winter, for example, when much larger quan- 
tities of more solid diet are taken, we can give larger doses of 
cathartics than in summer, when more vegetable and fluid sub- 
stances are ingested, and most persons are inclined to suffer from 
the summer diarrhoeas. 

Similar considerations influence treatment as practiced in vari- 
ous climates and zones, and on individuals of different races. The 
influence which race has on the action of medicines is not as 
much dwelt on as the subject probably demands. We know that 
there are peculiar exemptions from some diseases, as well as pecu- 
liar susceptibilities in regard to others, on the part of different 
races, and even of different people, and it is but fair to suppose 
like differences of susceptibility to the action of medicinal agents. 



198 THE PRESCRIPTION 

The effect of alcoholic liquors on the Indians of North America is 
well known, as is also the extent of the opium-eating habit among 
Mongolian people. It seems to be a fact that the higher civilized 
and cultivated races, as well as individuals, require and tolerate 
greater amounts of nerve-stimulants (alcohol, etc.), while the use of 
narcotics (opium, hasheesh, etc.) is more extensively practiced by 
the so-called, "half-civilized" nations; the apparent exception to 
this — namely, the increased use of opium, hydrate of chloral, chloro- 
form, cocaine, etc., in civilized countries or communities, in re- 
cent times — is directly traceable to the perhaps well-meant, al- 
though ill-judged and often fanatical prohibition and total-absti- 
nence movement, which is unintentionally forcing a greater curse 
on the country than the one it is trying to suppress. 

Individual idiosyncrasies produce quite exceptional conditions, 
which no physician can foretell, but the possibilities of which 
must not be lost sight of in prescribing. For instance, a single 
dose of mercury will salivate some persons; or of iodine will 
produce cutaneous eruptions and coryza ; or of quinine may 
cause choleraic symptoms, or, as in a recently reported case, ex- 
tensive desquamation of the skin ; a small dose of opium may pro- 
duce mania, or excessive narcotism; etc. On the other hand, in 
other patients and under other conditions, very large quantities 
of medicines may be given. Instead of being a personal idiosyn- 
crasy, this may may be only a consequence of the particular dis- 
ease; as when we give immense doses of opium in peritonitis, or 
apparently enormous quantities of hydrate of chloral in delirium 
tremens. 

Incompatibles. 

By "incompatibility" in a prescription we mean that the com- 
bination of certain substances or remedies is objectionable or im- 
possible ; and this incompatibility may arise from various reasons, 
sons. 

We may classify cases of incompatibility under four headings: 

I. Mechanical Incompatibility. 
II. Organoleptic Incompatibility. 

III. Chemical Incompatibility. 

IV. Therapeutical Incompatibility. 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 199 

A thorough knowledge of materia medica and chemistry is 
necessary to avoid the error of combining incompatible substances 
in the same prescription, and the physician should carefully study 
this part of materia medica in the works on that subject. It is 
probably impossible to make a list which would be of much value, 
as the list could not be memorized, and reference to it when per- 
haps the patient is looking on, or when away from home on a visit 
to the patient, is, of course, out of the question. We will, there- 
fore, confine ourselves in this place to the consideration of the 
general facts only, leaving it to the prescriber to apply these facts 
to the individual characteristics of the remedies he desires to give. 

Considering, first, then, mechanical incompatibilities, we find 
that there are many remedies which we can not bring into as homo- 
geneous union as would be desirable, but that the resulting mix- 
ture would soon separate again. Tinctures containing iodine, 
volatile or fixed oils, balsams, oleo-resins, resins, resinoids, and 
similar substances form precipitates when they are added to water, 
and these precipitates often adhere so persistently to the sides 
of the vial that shaking will not loosen them, and the liquid that 
might be poured from the bottle would contain little or none of 
the medicinal ingredients. 

Often, in cases of this kind, we may correct the trouble by mak- 
ing the menstruum in our prescription more alcoholic by adding 
either plain "alcohol or one of the alcoholic liquors ; provided, of 
course, that the use of alcohol is not counter-indicated by the con- 
dition of the patient. 

Many cases of mechanical incompatibility may be corrected by 
proper pharmaceutical manipulation, or processes, as when we 
cause the precipitate to be a light, flaky one, by adding the tinc- 
ture slowly to water during constant trituration, or perhaps by 
adding syrup instead of water alone, thus suspending the result- 
ing precipitate and making a ' ' shake mixture ; " or, when we emul- 
sify an oil by means of acacia or yolk of egg, and thus overcome 
an apparent mechanical incompatibility. 

Mechanical incompatibility is least likely to do actual harm 
to the patient, but it is most apparent to the pharmacist, who is 
often annoyed by combinations that defy his utmost skill in dis- 
pensing. The right of the pharmacist to alter the prescription 



200 THE PRESCRIPTION 

under such circumstances is limited, and the prescription, if really 
not compoundable, should be referred back to the physician for 
correction. A merely trifling change — such as the substitution, in 
a prescription for pills, of one excipient which will make a mass 
for another which was prescribed and will not make a mass — 
may, of course, be permitted. 

Organoleptic incompatibilities are such as result in medicines, 
offensive to sight, taste, or smell. Eeference to the methods of 
correcting some of these errors by means of excipients has al- 
ready been made when speaking of the latter. Certain mixtures 
are so disagreeable, however, that we should avoid them alto- 
gether, if possible; for instance, tincture of aloes in a mixture is 
rarely prescribed now, aloes being almost always administered in 
pills. 

Preparations containing tannic acid produce such unsightly 
mixtures with iron salts and solutions that we generally avoid 
the combinations. 

Examples of chemical incompatibility are quite plentiful. Two 
or more substances may be added to each other, and unite to form 
a new compound ; or, by double decomposition, several new com- 
pounds, which may be entirely different from the original sub- 
stances prescribed. Such resulting compounds may be insoluble 
and inert ; or they may be exceedingly active or even poisonous ; or 
they may have therapeutical or physiological effects which are 
totally different from those which the prescriber desired. 

It is generally stated that alkaline hydrates or alkaline car- 
bonates should not be mixed with acids. While- this is generally 
true, yet the resulting salts may be just what we want to give, 
as in the ' ' neutral mixtures, " or " saturations ; " as when Ave 
order carbonate of ammonium and benzoic acid "ad saturationem," 
so that the solution contains benzoate of ammonium, or as in so- 
lution of citrate of magnesium. 

As a rule, alkaline hydrates and carbonates should not be 
added to soluble alkaloidal salts, as the latter may become decom- 
posed, precipitating the often insoluble alkaloid. This, while it 
generally does not detract from the activity of the alkaloid, gives 
rise to the danger that the last dose may contain an excessive 
amount of the alkaloid and produce serious results which would 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 201 

have been avoided by the retention of the alkaloidal salt in solu- 
tion. Metallic salts should not be given with alkaline hydrates, 
carbonates, chlorides, sulphides, etc., because precipitates may 
result; as nitrate of silver with chloride of sodium, or calomel 
with lime-water. Even to this rule there are exceptions ; for calo- 
mel with lime-water gives us "black wash," while corrosive sub- 
limate with lime-water forms "yellow wash," both of which are 
valuable remedies. 

It will be seen from the above that there are many cases of 
chemical incompatibility which can not be objected to on thera- 
peutical grounds; that, in fact, many of these "incompatible" 
combinations are valuable from a therapeutical standpoint and 
that it is, therefore, impossible to give general rules as to which 
combinations may or may not be used. This will depend on the 
ingredients, and each prescription must be considered individually. 

There are, however, some chemically incompatible mixtures which 
must never be prescribed — namely, those in which decomposition 
may take place violently, or with explosive force. 

The most dangerous combinations that are likely to occur in 
prescriptions are those of chlorate of potassium, permanganate of 
potassium, bichromate of potassium, chromic acid, or concentrated 
mineral acids, with easily oxidizable organic substances. 

We should avoid giving chlorate of potassium with tannic acid, 
glycerin, sugar, sulphur, hyposulphite of sodium, etc. Chlorate of 
potassium will explode violently with many other substances, either 
upon trituration or spontaneously, but some of these mixtures 
are extremely unlikely to be prescribed; as chlorate of potas- 
sium with sulphide of antimony, picrate of ammonium, picric 
acid, etc. 

Nitrate and permanganate of potassium may explode with the 
same substances which are dangerous with chlorate of potassium. 

Nitric acid may produce spontaneous combustion or explosion 
with turpentine or other oils; or some of the concentrated mineral 
acids, as sulphuric and nitric may produce the same result with 
simple syrup. We should, therefore, make it a rule to prescribe 
chlorate or permanganate of potassium only in solution, and, as 
far as possible, without other ingredients except water ; as it may 
occur that the vial is left uncorked, and the water evaporates, in 



202 THE PRESCRIPTION 

which ease the residue might explode. Chlorate of potassium 
troches, ignorantly carried loose in a pocket which contained 
matches, have produced violent explosion. Mineral acids should 
not be prescribed in a concentrated form, but only diluted. A 
safe plan is to prescribe no combinations which are unusual, with- 
out first studying the results that may possibly occur; and, if 
explosive or poisonous compounds may be formed, we should, of 
course, avoid them. 

In dispensing, we must recollect that many substances, such as 
vapors of ether or alcohol, lycopodium dusted in the air, etc., are 
inflammable, and, with air, form explosive mixtures. It is true 
these are not spontaneously inflammable, but require the pres- 
ence of a flame to ignite them ; but at night a physician requir- 
ing an anaesthetic will prescribe chloroform, and not ether, on ac- 
count of the danger of igniting the vapor of the latter. 

To consider therapeutical incompatibilities at any length is out- 
side of the scope of these pages, and we must refer to those works 
on materia medica and therapeutics which treat at length on the 
physiological action of medicines. By therapeutical incompatibil- 
ity is meant an antagonism in action, so that one ingredient of the 
prescription acts as an antidote to another. Such antagonisms are 
not infrequently met with, sometimes even in official preparations, 
as in the case of tincture of conium, in which the alcohol is an 
antidote to the conium, and to a certain extent interferes with 
the proper action of the drug. A combination of opium with 
cathartics would ordinarily be considered incompatible; yet, in 
lead colic a solution of sulphate of magnesium with tincture of 
opium is found in practice to be a very valuable combination. 

Belladonna (or its alkaloid, atropine) is a physiological anti- 
dote to opium, and is used in cases of opium poisoning. Opium 
is a powerful depressant of the heart's action, while atropine, in 
proper doses, is a most energetic heart stimulant. Both, in exces- 
sive doses, are narcotic poisons. Notwithstanding the above- 
mentioned physiological antagonism or incompatibility, it is found 
in practice that a combination of the two remedies produces ano- 
dyne and hypnotic effects, without the danger of narcotic poison- 
ing from either. It appears, therefore, even in regard to physio- 
logical incompatibility, that experience or empiricism teaches us 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 203 

that there may be exceptions, and we may do well to remember 
that there can not be any positive rules in regard to this whole 
subject of incompatibility, but that we must study the charac- 
teristics of the individual drugs in this, as well as in all other re- 
gards. 

Another subject, somewhat related to chemical incompatibility, 
is that concerning the changes of color produced by various com- 
binations in our prescriptions. It is important to think of the pos- 
sibility of such changes — not so much, perhaps, because they 
can affect the value of the medicines, but rather because a want of 
knowledge in this regard may lead us to express or form erro- 
neous and unjust opinions as to the correctness of compounding, 
and our own ignorance may cause us to do injustice to some able 
pharmacists. 

Lessing gave the following examples of color changes, in his work 
on materia medica. Sulphurous acid, chlorine water, or any prep- 
aration containing free chlorine or bromine, may bleach organic 
colors contained in syrups, tinctures, etc. Sunlight, or strong 
alkalies, or acids, may have a similar effect. Bromine and iodine, 
however, may change some of the colors to yellow, brown, or blue. 
. Red vegetable colors become brighter with acids, or change to 
an orange tint, while alkalies often change them to brown or green ; 
metallic salts sometimes precipitate them. 

Yellow vegetable colors become darkened upon adding alkalies ; 
acids have comparatively little effect, while metallic salts may 
make them paler. 

Orange or brown vegetable colors are affected similarly to the 
red or yellow colors. 

Green vegetable colors change to yellow with acids, and to yel- 
lowish-brown with alkalies. 

Blue and violet vegetable colors generally become reddened with 
acids, and brown with alkalies. Litmus is an exception, it be- 
coming blue with alkalies. 

These changes of color are most apparent in solutions, although 
some of them are noticeable in powders, etc.. as when we mix 
rhubarb with alkaline carbonates, or with anise oil. 

They are unimportant, except as already explained, and a change 
of color will not deter us from prescribing any otherwise desir- 
able combination. 



204 the prescription 

Special Preparations. 

In the remaining pages of this Part we will consider the appli- 
cation of the foregoing general principles to the prescribing of 
special preparations, such as pills, powders, solutions, etc. The 
physician should aim to write his prescriptions in such complete 
form, including the designation of the comparatively unimportant 
excipients, diluents, conspergatives, etc., that the medicine will be 
exactly of the same appearance, taste, and smell, no matter how 
often, or by how many different pharmacists the prescription may 
be compounded. Medicines may be dispensed in solid or liquid 
forms, and of these we will consider the following: 

Solid. 

Species (teas). Suppositoria (suppositories). 

Pulvis (powder in bulk). Unguenta (ointments). 

Pulveres (powders). Cerata (cerates). 

Confecta (confections). Emplastra (plasters). 

Troohisci (troches). Chartce (papers). 



Pilwlce (pills). 



Liquid. 



Solutiones (solutions). Misturce (mixtures). 

Infusa (infusions). Emulsa (emulsions). 

Saturationes (neutral mixtures). Enemata (injections). 

Decocta (decoctions). Linimenta (liniments). 

Species (Species, ierum, f., pi). 

These have already been considered in former pages. They are 

prescribed by enumerating the ingredients, and writing either 

concisus, a, urn (cut), or conhtsus, a, um (crushed), after the 

names of the vegetable substances, according to the nature of the 

drug, thus: 

% Hyoscyami concisi, § ss. 
Lini farinse, 5 viii. 
M. ft. spec. S.: 

It must be recollected that teas, cataplasms, baths, pillows, etc., 
are prescribed and dispensed as "species." The subscription for 
these preparations is simple: M. ft. spec, (misce et fiant species, 
mix and let species be made.) 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 205 

The signature should give explicit directions for the use of 
these species ; for instance : 

Make a poultice of it. 

A handful in a quart of boiling water to make tea. Drink freely. 
Boil 2 handfuls in 3 gallons of water; when cool, use as sponge bath. 
Boil in 1 gallon of water; strain; when cool, use as injection. 
Sew in a muslin bag, and apply warm to cheek. 

For a dry pillow, to apply to cheek, about 1 or 2 ounces of 
species is required. Cut narcotic herbs are usually mixed with 
cut chamomile, elder flowers, or hops as diluents ; or we order 
only the active species, and direct in the signature to mix with a 
certain quantity of bran or corn meal. 

When dry heat is to be applied to an extensive surface, as to 
the abdomen, from 3 to 10 ounces of species may be required for 
the sack or pillow ; if chamomile or hops forms the bulk of the 
species, less is needed than if corn meal forms the bulk, about twice 
or three times as much of the latter being required as of the 
former lighter substances. 

Poultices * may be made from linseed meal, corn meal, bread 
crumbs, or powdered slippery elm bark, with hot water or milk. 
They may be made anodyne by adding narcotic herbs to the 
species ; or tincture of opium, or fluid extract of belladonna, hen- 
bane, or conium, to the poultice ; cooling or soothing, by adding 
solution of subacetate of lead ; stimulating, by adding powdered 
mustard to the species, or sprinkling turpentine on the prepared 
and folded poultice ; deodorizing by adding vegetable charcoal to 
the species; or disinfectant by adding carbolic acid, etc., to the 
poultice. When fluids are to be added to the poultice, these are 
prescribed separately and dispensed in vials as solutions. 

For a medium-sized poultice, the bulk of which consists of lin- 
seed meal, about 4 ounces of species will suffice, and we give the 
attendants verbal instructions to mix this with about y 2 pint 
of boiling water, to make a stiff paste, which is to be folded in a 
thin piece of muslin and applied to the skin, so that one thick- 
ness of the muslin intervenes between it and the poultice mixture. 
To apply a poultice direct to the skin is a filthy and otherwise 
objectionable practice, as the subsequent cleaning of the skin is 
troublesome and oftentimes positively injurious. It is customary 



206 THE PRESCRIPTION 

to prescribe two pillows or two poultices, so that one may be 
warmed while the other is applied. 

The quantity of species required for a bath depends in part on 
the character of the drugs. For a bath for full immersion, for 
an adult, about 2 pounds of species are required; less, of course, 
for a bath for children. For a sitz-bath, foot-bath, or sponge- 
bath, y 2 pound of species will usually suffice. The bath is directed 
to be prepared by boiling the required amount of species in a few 
gallons of water, allowing to stand for ten or fifteen minutes, 
straining, and then adding to the water in the tub. The whole 
bath should then be brought to the proper temperature before the 
patient is placed in it. 

The cold batli should have a temperature of about 20° C. (68° 
F.). It is seldom medicated. 

The tepid batli, or lukewarm batli, should be from 24° C. (75° 
F.) to 35° C. (95° F.), or somewhat less. 

The warm, or liot batli, is from 35° C. (95° F.) to 41° C. (106° 
F.).. 

The lukewarm and hot baths are frequently medicated. 

Never allow tJie boiling medicated decoction to be added to tlie 
bath after tlie patient is already in it; thoughtless attendants have 
occasionally scalded patients to a fearful extent in this manner. 

The mustard bath is to be made by filling a tub with warm 
(not hot) water to the desired depth; from 1 to 4 ounces of mus- 
tard is tied in a piece of muslin, and, after soaking, is alternately 
squeezed and soaked until its virtues are imparted to the water. 
The patient is then placed in the bath, and the cloth with mus- 
tard is used like a sponge for rubbing the skin. "When the sur- 
face is sufficiently reddened, the patient is taken out, dried quickly, 
folded in a sheet and blanket, and laid in bed. If the mustard 
is thrown loosely into the water, countless particles will remain 
adherent to the skin, and each one will continue to smart and 
burn, and thus completely destroy the soothing effects of a properly 
prepared mustard bath. ^ 

If the species are to be used for inhalation, about 2 ounces are 
thrown into a quart of boiling water, and the patient inhales the 
rising steam and vapors, but from a safe distance so as not to 
scald himself. The steam may be kept up for some time, either 
by occasionally throwing hot pebbles into the water or by setting 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 207 

the vessel on the stove, avoiding active ebullition. Such inhala- 
tions of vapor of chamomile, hops, tincture of henbane, belladonna 
or opium, of tar, creosote, etc., or even water alone, often give 
great relief in colds, catarrhs, influenza, bronchorrhoea, bronchitis, 
and other similar troubles. 

Powders 

are dry drugs divided into small particles which are easily mov- 
able upon each other. They may be of different degrees of fine- 
ness but the only kinds used in prescriptions are those of impal- 
pable fineness. 

The following drugs are fit for administration in powder form : 

1. Drugs too bulky for pills, as carbonate of magnesium, etc. 

2. Insoluble drugs, as calomel or calcium phosphate. 

3. Drugs incompatible in solution. 

4. Vegetable extracts and blue mass, when dry. 

5. Drugs very bitter or nauseous in solution. 

6. Almost all salts, and alkaloids and their salts. 

7. Soft or even liquid substances, if incorporated with a proper 
quantity of absorbing vegetable powder or sugar. 

The following kinds of substances are not well adapted for 
administration in powder form: 

1. Nauseous drugs, as asafetida. 

2. Deliquescent salts. 

3. Salts containing much water of crystallization, unless previ- 
ously dried, as sulphate of iron. 

4. Very volatile substances, as musk, camphor, etc. 

5. Soft extracts or extract-like substances. 

6. Acrid substances, as carbonate of ammonium. 

To these general statements some exceptions may be noted. 
Nauseous or volatile drugs, for instance, may be given in wafers 
or gelatin capsules ; or volatile substances may be dispensed in 
waxed paper, and soft substances may be mixed with dry vegetable 
powders, etc. 

Powders may be dispensed in bulk, the dose being measured out 
with some approximate measure ; or in divided doses, each dose 
folded in a separate paper. 



208 THE PRESCRIPTION 

Powder in Bulk (Pulvis, eris, m. or 1). 

When the dose of the powder exceeds 20 or 30 grains, it is best 
prescribed in bulk, ,with sugar as a diluent. It should be dis- 
pensed in a wide-mouthed bottle or in a paper box, and the dose 
is measured, when Avanted, with a teaspoon or other appropriate 
measure. 

For the purpose of approximating the doses, powders may be 
classified : 

Light: Magnesia and vegetable powders; teaspoon contains 7 
to 30 grains. 

Moderately lieavy: Eesins, gums, sugars, sulphur, and the 
lighter salts ; as alum, chlorate of potassium, chloride of ammo- 
' nium, cream of tarter, etc. ; teapsoon contains from 30 to 60 grains. 

Heavy: Metallic oxides and salts (rarely given in bulk) ; tea- 
spoon contains from 60 to 120 grains. 

The teaspoon is supposed in these cases to be moderately heaped ; 
if only level full, it contains about half as much. 

The method of prescribing is shown in the following example : 

R Sertnse pulveris, 

Potassii bitartratis, 

Sulphuris loti, aa 3 i. 

Zingiberis pulveris, 3 i. 

M.; ft. pnlv. S.: 

The subscription in this case may be simply M. (misce, mix) if 
all of the ingredients are already in fine powder ; or, if any of the 
ingredients are in lumps or crystals, as follows: M.; ft. pulv. 
(misce; fiat pulvis — mix; let a powder be made). 

We may add to this, d. in sca\tid. (detur in scatida; let it be given 
in a paper box), or d. in vitro (detur in vitro; let it be given in 
glass) , if for any reason we find it necessary to do so. 

The following medicines are most frequently given in this form : 
Mixtures of powders containing pepsin, subnitrate of bismuth, 
etc., for dyspeptics; charcoal, magnesia, phosphate of lime, car- 
bonate of lime, cubebs, cream of tartar, sulphur, lupulin, powdered 
senna, etc. 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 209 

Sugar is usually added as a diluent, and may be flavored with 
a volatile oil, when it is called ' ' oleosaccharum, ' ' thus : 

Ifc Bismuthi subnitratis, 5 ss. 

Oleosacchari menthae piperitse, 5 iiss. 
M.; d. in vitro. S. : 

This means that volatile oil of peppermint shall be added to the 
sugar in the proportion of about 1 drop for every dram (or, ac- 
cording to some, for every scruple), and then be thoroughly 
mixed. The whole is ordered to be dispensed in a glass vial, be- 
cause the oil of peppermint is' volatile and might evoporate from a 
paper box. 

It may be recollected that with 20 grains of one of the light 
powders there can be mixed, 

of an extract of pill consistence to 6 grains; 

of an ordinary extract to 4 grains; 

of a balsam or oleo-resin to 4 drops; 

of a volatile oil to 4 drops; 

and of a watery substance, if the powder is 

insoluble in water to 2 grains; 

With an equal quantity of a moderately heavy powder only half 
as much of the above substance can be incorporated. 

The above method of prescribing powders in bulk is not very 
accurate in dosing, and is useful only when substances are to be 
given for a long time and when the doses need not be very exact. 

Powders in Divided Doses (Pulveres, m. or f., pi). 

• "When accuracy in dosing is necessary, the powders are divided 
into exact doses, each of which is folded in a small piece of paper, 
called cJiartula. The contents of such a paper should weigh from 
4 to 10 or 15 grains, and when the dose is much smaller than 4 
grains, some inert powder is added as a diluent, for ease of divi- 
sion. This diluent is generally sugar or sugar of milk; but other 
substances, as aromatic powder, etc., are also used. 

In writing the prescription, the whole quantity of each drug 



210 THE PRESCRIPTION 

is written; the ingredients are directed to be mixed, and then to 
be divided into the desired number of doses. 



Or, 



u 


Opii pulveris, gr. ii. 
Acidi tannici, 3 ss. 
Sacehari albi, 3 i. 






M. 


et div. in pulv. XII. S. : 






$ 


Phenaeetini, 


2 


Gm. 




Caffeinee citratse, 


1 


Gm. 




Sacehari lactis, 


2 


Gm. 


M. 


div. in pulv. viii 







This form of subscription, Misce et divide in pidveres — (mix 
and divide into — powders), is very simple, yet explicit, and 
therefore sufficiently complete. 

Other formulas may be employed, of which the following are, 
perhaps, most common. 

M. et div. in part, aeq. — (Misce et divide in partes aequales ■ — , 
mix and divide into — equal part) ; or, instead of the term part, 
aeq., the term chart, (chartulas, papers), or dos. (doses, doses), 
may be written. 

M. et ft. pulv.; div. in chart. — (misce et fiat pulvis; divide in 
chartulas — , mix and let a powder be made ; divide into — 
papers), is a form of subscription especially adapted to prescrip- 
tions with one or more of the ingredients in the form of lumps or 
crystals or in any form other than a powder. 

After the word misce, in any of the above formulas, the word et 
is generally omitted, although it would be better to retain it. 

Powders are sometimes prescribed thus : 

P* Opii pulveris, gr. %. 

Aeidi tannici, gr. iiss. 

Sacehari albi, gr. v. 
M. et ft. pulv. ; d. tal. dos. XII. 

Misce et fiat pulvis; dentur tales doses XII (mix and let twelve 
such powders be given) . This subscription means that twelve 
powders are to be given, each (talis, e, adj.) powder containing 
the quantities named in the prescription. In this case, the dis- 
penser multiplies the quantity of each ingredient by the number 
of powders stated in the subscription, to ascertain the total quan- 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 211 

tity which he must weigh out. This method it is not advisable to 
adopt, as it adds another chance for error in dispensing. 

A very common error, which should be carefully guarded 
against, is to write the subscription thus : M. ft. pulv. No. III. 
This form of subscription does not make it clear whether the drug- 
gist shall divide or multiply the quantities named in the sub- 
scription, and, while he would generally guess correctly, it is, 
nevertheless, only a guess in each case. M. ft. pulv. is correct when 
only one powder is ordered, but when two or more powders are 
prescribed, it should be div. in pulv., instead of ft. pulv. The 
word "No." is superfluous. We do not say "divide into number 
three powders," nor did the Komans. 

If the powders contain a volatile substance, they may be wrapped 
in waxed papers, which are prescribed by adding to the ordinary 
subscription the formula, d. in chart, cerat. (dentur in chart ulis 
ceratis, let them be given in waxed papers). 

Or, to disguise the taste of disagreeable medicines, they may 
be prescribed in gelatin capsules, by adding d. in capsid. gelatin, 
(dentur in capsulis gelatinatis, let them be given in gelatin cap- 
sules), or, in wafers, d. in chart, amyli (let them be given in starch 
wafers). 

Some physicians prefer to write in plain English, "Put up in 
capsules," or, "in wafers," to which there is no serious objection. 

The patient may be directed to take soluble powders in water 
or milk, etc., or insoluble powders in more viscid liquids, as in 
syrup ; or he may place the dry powder on the tongue and gulp 
it down with a mouthful of water. 

If the powders have been put up in capsules or wafers (the 
latter also sometimes called "cachets"), these are dropped into a 
glass or cup containing a large tablespoonful of water, milk, cof- 
fee, or other fluid. In a moment, when the entire surface has been 
moistened and softened, the whole contents of the glass or cup 
is swallowed at one gulp, without breaking the wafer or capsule. 

Or the patient may be instructed to put up his medicine in a 
wafer, himself. "Wafers may be bought either round or square. 
One of these is dipped edgewise into water, so as to wet its whole 
surface, and is then laid on a large, previously wetted, tablespoon. 
The powder, pill, or bolus, is then laid on the wafer ; and then first 
one edge is folded over, then the opposite, to overlap the first; 



212 THE PRESCRIPTION 

then the ends; after which the spoon is filled with water or milk, 
and the whole swallowed at one gulp. 

With care, even castor or cod-liver oil can be inclosed in a wafer 
in this manner, and swallowed without any perception of taste. 

Confections (Confectum, i, n.). 

This class of preparations is occasionally useful to make dis- 
agreeable remedies more palatable, especially for children. Pow- 
ders are mixed into a paste with honey, preserves, fruit jellies, or 
syrups, any one of which may be prescribed q. s., the amount 
necessary to be taken being left to the judgment of the dispenser. 

Soluble powders, such as salts or sugar, are not appropriate for 
administration in this form, unless the quantity of insoluble pow- 
ders in the prescription is largely in excess. 

Official confections are prescribed by writing the name and the 
quantity merely. Extemporaneous prescriptions for confections 
enumerate the powders or other ingredients, and, lastly, an ex- 
cipient to make the mass. 

R Santonicse pulveris, % i. 

Jalapse pulveris, 3 ss. 

Eosae conf ectionis, q. s. 
M. et ft. conf ect. S. : 

(Misce et fiat confectum, mix and let a confection be made.) 
Confections are sometimes divided into conserves (conserva, ce, 
f.), and electuaries (electuarium, i, n.), the first being made by 
mixing dry sugar with a moist vegetable substance, the second by 
mixing vegetable powder with a moist or liquid saccharine sub- 
stance. It is unnecessary to make the distinction in the subscrip- 
tion. 

Pills (Pilula, ce,f.). 

In order to make pills, it is necessary to make a mass of a 
doughy consistence, small portions of which can be rolled into a 
round shape, which they should retain, neither flattening nor be- 
coming brittle and crumbling by age. 

As the size of the pill is limited to an average weight of 2 to 
6 grains, and as a patient usually does not like to take more than 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 213 

half a dozen for a dose, we can not well give drugs in pill-form 
when the dose exceeds 15 to 20 grains. 

Deliquescent salts should not be prescribed in pill-form; neither 
liquid substances, unless the dose is very small ; as carbolic acid, 
creosote, or croton oil. 

The following drugs are suitable for administration in pill- 
form (mainly after Parrish) : 

1. All drugs suitable to be given in powder, if the dose is small 
enough. 

2. Resins and balsams, which may be made into a mass by add- 
ing soap or other excipient. Copaiba can be warmed with its 
own bulk, each of powdered cubeb and yellow wax; and, when 
melted and well mixed, the mass resulting on cooling may be rolled 
out into pills. 

3. Substances, the action of which is to be retarded. On the 
other hand, medicines designed to act promptly must not be given 
as pills. 

4. Insoluble substances, too heavy to be given in mixtures. These 
may also be given in powder. 

5. Disagreeable or nauseous substances. These are very pleas- 
antly disguised in pills, especially in the coated varieties; they 
may also be given in powders, which can be dispensed in capsules 
or wafers. 

6. Vegetable extracts and blue mass. When vegetable extracts 
are too soft, it may be necessary to add some inert vegetable pow- 
der, as powdered marshmallow root, to make a sufficiently dry mass. 

7. Volatile oils and oleo-resins may be made into pills with the 
proper excipients, but they are better given in capsules. 

In prescribing pills it is necessary to have some adhesive sub- 
stance to allow the making of a mass. Often the base becomes 
adhesive upon the simple addition of a few drops of water ; or an 
adjuvant or ' corrective may be indicated which is itself adhesive 
or becomes so with a small quantity of water. 

Ifc Nuc. vomic. extr., gr. v. 

Belladonn. extr., gr. viii. 

Colocynth. extr., eomp., 3 i. 
M. et div. in pil. XXX. 

When water alone will suffice, as in this prescription, to make a 



214 THE PRESCRIPTION 

mass, this is not usually expressed in the prescription. The same 
prescription, however, would be better written: 

Ifc Nuc. vomic. extr., gr. v. 

Belladonn. extr., gr. viii. 

Colocynth. extr., comp., 3 i. 

Aquae q. s. ut ft. mass. 
M. et div. in pil. XXX. 

The simplest subscription being best, provided it is explicit 
enough, the formula 31.; div. in pil. — , is preferred by the 
writer. Of course, the direction misce; divide in pilxdas — , im- 
plies in the word misce, the making of a mass, as otherwise it 
could not be divided into pills. 

In the last example of prescription, above, it is really only neces- 
sary to write aquce q. s., as the additional remark, xit fiat massa, 
is necessarily implied in the subscription. 

A common form of subscription is M.; ft. mass; div. in pil. — 

(misc; fiat massa; divide in pilxdas — , mix; let a mass be made; 

divide into — pills; or M.; ft. mass, in pil. — div. (Misce; fiat massa 

in pilxdas — dividexxda, mix; let a mass be made, to be divided 

into — pills). 

The defective forms of subscription already condemned for 
powders are still more frequently used for pills; 31.; ft. pil. No. — , 
or, Ft. pil. — (sometimes abbreviated to Mfpil. — ). No., for num- 
ber, is superfluous; ft. pil. — is appropriate when 1 pill only is to 
be made ;. otherwise it is always preferable to write, divide in 
pilxdas — . 

The following list of excipients for pills is mainly after Kem- 
ington : 

Water — used only when the ingredients of the pill possess suf- 
ficient adhesiveness to be developed by the water. 

Syrup — similar to water; a little more adhesive. 

Sxjrup of acacia — more adhesive than simple syrup ; pills are 
apt to become hard in time. 

Mxicilage of acacia — more adhesive than the last. 

Glycerin — a little of it in a pill prevents the pill from becom- 
ing hard. 

Glucose — colorless; adhesive, very generally useful; best ex- 
cipient for quinine. 

Honey — similar to glucose; not colorless. 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 215 

Extract of malt — similar to glucose ; not colorless. 

Glycerite of starch — more adhesive than glycerin alone ; does 
not allow the pill to dry out hard. 

Glycerite of tragacantli — similar to above ; more adhesive. 

Confection of rose — useful when we want to increase bulk of 
mass. 

Crumb of bread — useful to make pills from such liquids as cro- 
ton oil, volatile oils, carbolic acid, etc. 

Powdered althcea — added to give pill consistence to extracts, etc. 

Soap — with resins. 

Resin cerate — valuable for oxidizable substances, etc. 

Cacao butter — for permanganate of potassium pills. 

Petrolatum — same as above. 

Vegetable extracts — solid extracts of couchgrass, dandelion, 
gentian, etc., form good masses with vegetable powders and quinine. 

In choosing the excipient, it may be remembered that resins 
are often best made into a mass with powdered soap and water. If 
much of vegetable powders is in the prescription, any of the 
mucilages will do right well ; or honey, syrup, confection of rose, 
or one of the above-named extracts ; glucose makes a good mass 
with quinine ; some resins are easily made into a mass with alco- 
hol, but the pills ai^e apt to flatten unless some vegetable powder 
is added. 

After a little study of the nature of the medicines, the proper 
excipient can readily be chosen, and should always, if possible, 
be named by the physician. As he can not always determine the 
exact quantity necessary to form a mass, it is customary to pre- 
scribe " q. s. " of the excipient, thus : 

R Arsen. trioxid. gr. ii. 

Quin. sulph., 3 ss. 

Extr. gentian., q. s. 

M. et div. in pil. XXX. 



Or, 



IJ Ferri reducti, 2. Gm. 

Strychinnse sulphatis 0.05 Gm. 

Pulveris glycyrrhizae 5. Gm. 

Extracti gentianre, q.s. ut. ft. mass. 
Divide in pilulas LX. 
Consperge pulvers cinnamomi. 

S 



216 " THE PRESCRIPTION 

If all the medicinal ingredients of a pill-mass are resinous, res- 
inoid, or extractive substances, the pills are apt to flatten; and, 
therefore, it is well to add for each pill from % to y% a grain of 
poAvdered licorice root, or of some other vegetable powder, the fibers 
and cell-walls of which afford mechanical support and maintain 
the globular form of the pill. The quantity should be written in 
the prescription by the physician, as this addition affects the size 
of the pills. 

As a general rule, a small addition of licorice root, not enough 
to materially increase the size of the pill, together with extract of 
gentian, will make a good pill-mass; and, in fact, this extract of 
gentian is one of the most generally useful pill excipients. 

When it is desirable to make pills from a very small quantity 
of medicine, as when we desire to make 60 pills from 1 grain of 
strychnine, the prescription requires three ingredients — the base 
(just mentioned) ; a diluent, or powder, to increase the bulk and 
enable us to divide the base into doses, and an excipient to cause 
the other ingredients to adhere or form a mass. These subordinate 
ingredients of the mass should be mentioned in the prescription, 
as it is desirable that the prescription should be so complete that 
the pills made according to it will always have the same size and 
color, thus: 

R Strychnines sulphatis, gr. i. 

GlycyrrhizaB pulveris, gr. xv. 

Glycyrrhizse extracti pulveris, gr. xx. 

Aquae, q.s. 
M. et div. in pil. LX. 

As a diluent, the physician may prescribe starch, aromatic pow- 
der, powder of licorice root, cinnamon, or marshmallow, or any 
other medicinally inert powder. 

But no prescription for pills is quite complete unless the consper- 
gative is also mentioned, and, as the color and taste of an extempo- 
raneously prescribed pill depends almost altogether on the ad- 
hering powder, this should always be designated by the physician ; 
and it will be in this matter, as in so many others, that a judicious 
choice and variety will avoid the appearance of mere routine in 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 217 

prescribing pills. The conspergative is written after the subscrip- 
tion, or rather, it is the concluding part of the subscrpition : 



R Quin. sulph., 


gr. xl. 


Oleoresin. piper., 


gr. v. 


Ferri reduct., 


gr. xx. 


Extr. gentian., 


q. s. 


M. et div. in pil. XX. 




Consperge lycopodio. 


S.: 



Here the direction, consperge lycopodio (sprinkle or strew with 
lycopodium), directs that when the pills are being cut and rounded 
they shall be rolled in lycopodium to prevent adhesion. Aromatic 
powder, cinnamon, marshmallow or licorice root powders, etc., are 
good conspergatives for dark-colored pills, while a mixture of 
starch and powdered sugar, or lycopodium, answers better for 
light-colored pills. A prescription for pills, written with proper 
diluent and excipient, and with the conspergative mentioned, will 
of course, necessarily cause pills of the same size and appearance 
to be put up whenever and however often it may be compounded. 

Formerly, before sugar-coated and gelatin-coated pills were in 
use, it was the habit, frequently, to order pills to be gilded or 
silvered. This may be prescribed by writing, instead of consperge 
lycopodio, as in the above example, as follows : 

Obduc. fol. auri {obducantur foliis auri, let them be covered 
with leaves of gold), or obduc. fol. argenti (of silver). 

Probably, theoretically, the most promptly active and reliable 
pills are extemporaneously prepared and uneoated pills, when 
made from fresh, first-class ingredients by a competent dispenser. 
But in the actual practice of the present time, the finest and most 
accurately made pills are Avell-finished gelatin-coated pills, made 
on the large scale by reliable manufacturers. The gelatin-coated 
pill must be still soft while it is being coated; and the coating, 
which is of extreme thinness, dissolves readily on the tongue,, 
swelling, as it does so, and rendering the pill so slippery that it 
is readily swallowed ; and, as the coating is either tasteless or sweet, 
the disagreeable taste of the pill-mass is entirely disguised. 

The coating being also perfectly transparent, the peculiar color 
of the pill-mass is clearly shown, and, therefore, mistakes from 
substitution are less liable to occur, and the appearance of routine- 



218 THE PRESCRIPTION 

prescribing is avoided by the great variety in the size and color of 
the pills. 

Ready-made gelatin-coated pills are prescribed, either by writ- 
ing the maker's name for the pills, together with the abbreviation 
of the manufacturer's name, as in the following example (a.b.c. 
standing for the name of the maker). 

IJ Pil. quininse, phosphori et ferri, A.b.c, xxiv. 
or by writing the manufacturer 's formula, thus : 

IJ Quininffi sulphatis, gr. i. 

Phosphori, gr. i/ 100 . 

Ferri carbonatis massae, gr. i. 

In pil. I. 
D. tal. pil. XXIV (a.b.c). 

This subscription, dentur tales pilulas viginti et quatuor 

(a.b.c.) means, let 24 such pills, of a.b.c. 's make, be given. 

If the firm whose name is mentioned makes pills with only one 
kind of coating, it is not necessary to designate the coating in the 
prescription. Otherwise the style of coating is usually specified 
in English, in parenthesis, after the number of pills. 

When the physician prescribes ready-made, coated, or "pro- 
prietary" pills, as in the last example above, by enumerating the 
active ingredients instead of merely the name of the pills, it is of 
course unnecessary to state either the diluents or excipients, as 
these are not under the control of the dispenser. But this re- 
mark applies only when the name of the manufacturer is men- 
tioned, as otherwise the pills, as dispensed by different pharmacists, 
may present great diversity of appearance. 

The bolus is simply a very large oval pill, 10, 15, or more 
grains in weight. Boluses are prescribed exactly like pills, merely 
substituting the abbreviation bol.' for pil. in the subscription. 
They are usually taken in wafers or gelatin capsules. 

Tablet, Lozenge, or Troche (TrocJiiscus, i. m.). 

Usually round, oval, or octagonal discs, punched out of a mass, 
like pill-mass, which is rolled out much in the same manner as 
pastry dough, and then dried. They are rarely prescribed to be 
made extemporaneously, but are ordered by designating one of 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 219 

the official or commercial varieties, and the number desired ; thus : 

B Trochiscos santonini, XII. 
S.: 

Occasionally it may be necessary to prescribe troches extempora- 
neously, and, if so, the mass is ordered similar to pill-mass, and 
the subscription is M. et div. in trocMsc . . . . (Misce et divide in 
trochiscos Mix and divide into. . . .troches). 

As the troches must be dried, they can not be made so as to be 
dispensed on short notice, and this may be the reason why they 
are so seldom prescribed extemporaneously. 

Suppositories (suppositorium, i, n.). 

Suppositories are medicines incorporated with oil of theobroma, 
formed into conical shape, and intended for rectal administration, 
either for local or general effect. Occasionally suppositories are 
used for introduction into the vagina or urethra, but these are 
rarely prescribed extemporaneously ; proprietary articles of this 
kind are usually called for and dispensed, and these are often 
made with gelatin. 

The Pharmacopoeia directs that, unless otherwise prescribed, each 
suppository shall weigh 15 grains, or 1 gram. The prescribing 
is, therefore, very simple. After writing the names and quantities 
of the active ingredients, add oil of theobroma to make the total 
mass weigh as many times 15 grains as the number of suppositories 
desired, thus: 

R Extr. opii, gr. iii. 

Acid, tannic, gr. xviii. 

01. theobromag, q. s. ad 3 iss. 
M. et. div. in supposit. VI. 
Consperge lycopodio. 

The conspergative (usually lycopodium or starch) should be 
mentioned, as some druggists are in the habit of packing supposi- 
tories in cotton, the fibers of which often are difficult to remove, 
and may produce irritation. 

Plasters (Emplastrxim, %., n.). 

Plasters are hard when cool, but become adhesive at the tem- 
perature of the body. They are usually spread on muslin, chamois 



220 THE PRESCRIPTION 

skin, sheepskin, adhesive plaster, or other suitable fabric, warmed 
and applied to the surface of the skin, either for local effect in 
skin diseases or sometimes for effect on deeper lying organs. 

Ordinary lead or adhesive plaster, "surgeons' plaster," is used 
for giving mechanical support in the treatment of injuries, frac- 
tures, dislocations, etc. 

Plasters may occasionally be prescribed by weight (about 10' 
grains for every square inch of surface to be covered), but they 
are generally prescribed to be of a certain size — thus: 

IJ Emplastrum cantharidis, 10x10 Cm. 

Or, 

R Emplastrum belladonnas, 4"x 6". 
Sig.: For external use. 

These figures, accompanied by the sign for inches, mean of 
course a plaster, 4x6 inches in size. 

Cerate (Ceratum, %., n.). 

Less solid than plasters; designed for use as dressings on lint, 
charpie, muslin, etc. They are generally prescribed by weight, 
and dispensed in gallipots. Sometimes, as in the case of can- 
tharidal cerate, they are prescribed like plasters — by size. In an 
extemporaneous prescription for a cerate, various substances may 
be ordered to be mixed with simple cerate as the vehicle or diluent. 
The subscription is M. et. ft. cerat. (misce et fiat ceratum, mix 
and let a cerate be made). 

If all the ingredients are already cerates, as when a more active 
cerate is ordered to be mixed with simple cerate to reduce its 
strength, the subscription is simply M. {misce, mix). 

Ointment (Unguentum, %., n.). 

Softer than cerates; melt at the temperature of the body, by 
friction. They are designed for inunction. They are prescribed 
precisely like cerates, simply using the abbreviation ungt., in- 
stead of cerat. 

Papers (CTiarta, az., f.). 

In some of these preparations, as for instance in cliarta canthar- 
idis and charta sinapis, one side of a sheet of paper is coated Avith 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 221 

appropriate preparations containing the respective medicinal 
agents; while in the charta potassii nitratis, bibulous paper is satu- 
rated with nitrate of potassium. 

The first two are intended for external application, and are pre- 
scribed like plasters, by size, or, as they frequently are kept in 
pieces of about four inches square, by number. They are usually, 
however, in rolls, and the proper size can be cut off. 

The patient, or his attendants, must be instructed to moisten 
the mustard paper by dipping in lukewarm water before applying 
it. 

The nitrate of potassium paper is cut in strips, which are ignited 
•and allowed to burn without flame, and the vapors are inhaled 
by asthmatics. 

Liquid Preparations. 

In dispensing fluid medicines, it is necessary to bear in mind 
the sizes of vials in use, so that these may be filled. The physician 
should so arrange the quantities in his prescriptions that the 
liquid is not too much for one size of vial and too little for the next 
size, but just the right quantitiy for one or another. 

He must remember, therefore, that y 2 , 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 8-ounce 
vials are employed for prescriptions. The next sizes are 10, 12, 
16, 24, and 32-ounce sizes, which are, however, rarely employed 
for prescriptions. (For metric sizes, see page 75.) 

Vials of blue or black glass are often employed to dispense 
remedies for external application, the color of the vial, with the 
customary conspicuous red color of the label, being an additional 
safeguard against mistakes and accidents. 

Blue vials are often used to dispense solutions of nitrate of 
silver, with a view to prevent the action of light upon such a 
preparation. But a moment's thought will show the uselessness 
of this practice, for blue glass transmits the chemical or actinic 
rays of light, and therefore, offers no protection to this sensitive 
solution. Bottles of a deep orange-yellow ("amber") glass are 
now used for the above purpose; and, as this glass obstructs the 
passage of actinic rays, these vials are very appropriate for all 
solutions and preparations liable to be injured by the action of 
light. 

When we desire to have any preparation dispensed in a blue 



222 THE PRESCRIPTION 

or black vial (the druggist uses these indiscriminately), we state 
in our subscription, d. in vitr. nigr. (detur in vitro nigro, let it 
be given in a black glass). 

A yellow vial would be ordered d. in vitr. flav. (flavus, a, um, 
yellow). 

Official, Officinal, and Proprietary Liquid Preparations. 

If it is desired to prescribe any of these preparations without 
any admixture, this is of course readily done by merely writing 
the name and quantity, thus : 

R Tinct. ferri chloric!., fB i. 
S.: 

or, if proprietary, by adding the initials of the makers, 

R Extr. ergot, fl., O-W.L., f§ ii. 
S.: 

or if the preparation is usually put up in bottles of a certain size, 
it is best to write : 

R Liq. magnes. citrat., lagenam i. 
or, if proprietary, adding the initials of the makers, 
R Syr. hypophosph. tonic, O-W. L., lagenam i. 

Lagena is a Latin word, meaning bottle. Instead of one bottle 
of solution of citrate of magnesium, 12 fluidounces may be pre- 
scribed; but as this preparation must be put up in "magnesium 
citrate bottles," which hold just this quantity, neither more nor 
less may be prescribed to be dispensed in one bottle. 

In regard to prescriptions for so-called proprietary medicines, 
it may be stated that, while of course any quantity less than a 
full bottle may be prescribed, it is not always good policy to do so, 
as the druggist, in order to secure himself against loss, must 
often charge almost as much for the less quantity as for the whole 
bottle, and it is therefore more economical for the patient, and 
also often more agreeable to the pharmacist if the prescriber or- 
ders the whole bottle, if possible. 

When only one fluid preparation is ordered in the prescrip- 
tion, without any additions, no subscription is necessary; but if 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 223 

two or three different kinds, all fluid preparations, are ordered 
in the same prescription, the subscription is M. (misce, mix) . 

If, however, one or more of the ingredients of the prescription 
for a fluid preparation are solid, or such as will not mix readily 
with the other ingredients, then the subscription is not always so 
simple, and the method of prescribing may also be more difficult. 

Solutions (Solutio, onis, £.). 

By a solution we mean a fluid preparation, consisting of one or 
more solid substances dissolved in water, with or without the ad- 
dition of acids, alcohol, or glycerin. To this may be added other 
liquids, as syrups, tinctures, fluid extracts, etc. A solution is a 
clear or moderately clear liquid, without any undissolved floating 
particles or sediment ; the whole of it could pass through a filter. 
Occasionally the addition of some ingredient may cause a slight 
opalescence without destroying its character as a solution. 

The solution may vary in color from watery clearness and lim- 
pidity to a very deep and almost opaque color. 

J£ Quininas sulphat., 3 ss. 

Acid, sulph. dil., q. s. 

Syr. aurant., f% i. 

Aquae purae, f § iii. 

M. et ft. sol. S.: 

In such a prescription the subscription is simply Misce et fiat 
solutio, mix and let a solution be made. 

When the solid substance requires a special solvent, as in the 
case of quinine, the solvent (acid, in this case,) should be men- 
tioned in the prescription. Occasionally we meet such prescrip- 
tions : 

IJ Quiniiise sulphat., 5. Gm. 

Syr. tolutan., 20. Cc. 

Elix. tarax. comp., 80. Cc. 

M. et ft. sol. S.: 

Opinions differ as to the proper method of dispensing this 
preparation. On the one hand, it is maintained that the sub- 
scription directs a solution to be made, and that this can not be 
done without an acid ; that, therefore, the acid should be added, 
although it is not mentioned in the prescription. On the other 
hand, it is argued that the evident intention of the prescriber is 



224 THE PRESCRIPTION 

to disguise the taste of the quinine with the elixir; and, as this 
object would be defeated by the addition of an acid, the subscrip- 
tion should be disregarded and no acid be added. The writer holds 
the latter opinion, and thinks that the intention of the prescriber 
should be carried out as far as possible ; but the prescriber should 
not write ft. sol. when the ingredients will not make a solution, and 
when he evidently did not want a solution ; or he should prescribe 
the necessary solvents, if he actually desired the solution to be 
made. In the above example there is, therefore, an error in either 
case, no matter what was the prescriber 's intention; either an 
omission in the inscription, or a wrong subscription. 

In this example, the solid substance, together with its special 
solvent, is so small in bulk in proportion to the total quantity, 
that its bulk may be entirely ignored in calculating the quantities 
of the fluids; and the syrup has such a simple relation to the 
total quantity that the amount of diluent required is easily de- 
termined and also easily written in simple terms. 

Frequently, however, this is not the case. The other ingredients 
make such an odd volume that the remainder, which must be filled 
up with diluent, is also so odd an amount that we can not well 
write it, even when we may readily ascertain how much it would 
be. Or, it may be that there are a number of solid ingredients, of 
which we do not know the volume they will occupy in the solu- 
tion, and, therefore, can not calculate the exact amount of diluent 
to be added. In such cases, it is customary to write the preposi- 
tion ad after the name of the diluent, and then the total quan- 
tity which it is desired to dispense. Thus we write as follows: 



M. 



In this case, the quantity of diluent required to make 4 fluid- 
ounces would be 2 fluidounces and Qy 2 fluidrams. Instead of writ- 
ing this odd quantity we obtain exactly 4 fluidounces, and thereby 
secure exact dosing, in the manner described. 

One drawback to the above prescription is, that it will not 



Opii tincturas, 


f 3 ss. 


Valerianae tincturas, 


f 3 iii. 


Syrupi tolutani, 


f3vi, 


Aquam puram ad 


fSiv. 







EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 225 

always be dispensed in the same manner. This, it is true, is not 
the fault of the prescriber, but of the dispensers. One of the regu- 
lar "old-reliable" stock questions for the "Queries and Answers" 
columns of the pharmaceutical journals is, "what does ad mean 
in prescriptions?" Many druggists would add 4 fluidounces of 
diluent. 

The writer has, therefore, been in the habit of writing in a 
somewhat modified manner : 



R 


Magnes. sulph., 


3i- 




Acid, sulph. dil., 


f 3 i. 




Syr. acid, citric. 


fgi. 




Aquae q. s. ut 


ft. solut. £% vi. 


M. 


S 





This can not well be misunderstood; aquce quantum satis ut fiant 
solutionis fluiduncice sex (water enough to make 6 fluidounces of 
solution). Instead of this, some would write in this prescription, 
"aq. q. s. ad f%vi," which is also not likely to be misunderstood. 
" Aq. ut ft. f§vi," is still another method of writing the same 
thing. 

Although it is not customary to do so, yet it might be a good 
plan to write all prescriptions for solutions, mixtures, and other 
similar preparations in which a diluent is used, in the manner 
just indicated, to make up a certain total quantity. We would 
then avoid all calculations as to the amount of diluent necessary, 
and would insure more correct dosing. 

The gargle (gargarisma, atis, n.), eye-wash (collyrium, ii, n.), 
injection (injectio, onis, f.), wash or lotion (lotio, onis, f.), etc., 
are all solutions, and are prescribed as such. 

Neutral Mixtures (Saturatio, onis, f.). 

These are solutions of an alkaline substance in water, neutral- 
ized or saturated with an acid. Usually carbonates are thus dis- 
solved, and the carbonic acid gas liberated is partly dissolved in 
the water, and the resulting mixtures are rendered grateful to the 
patients thereby; this is especially the case when the stomach is 
rebellious as in cholera morbus, in which complaint the follow- 



226 THE PRESCRIPTION 

ing mixture usually controls the vomiting and purging quite 
promptly : 

R Potass, bicarb., 3 i. 

Acid, tartar., 

Aquae, aa q. s. ut ft. saturat. f § iiiss. 
Adde 

Morph. sulph., gr. i. 

Tinct. valerian., 

Syr. sacchari, aa f 3 ii. 

M. S. : Tablespoonful every hour. 

In prescriptions of this kind, it is not to be supposed that the 
physician will always remember the precise quantity of acid 
necessary to exactly neutralize or saturate the base, and he there- 
fore writes q. s. after the name of the acid. The form used above 
for prescribing a saturation extemporaneously may be easily re- 
membered : 

R (base; with quantity.) 

(acid.) 

Aquae, aa, q. s. ut ft. saturat. . . . (quantity.) 

Adde 

M. S.: 

Any base, acid, and additions can be inserted in any quantities, 
but the form remains the same. In fact, with but very slight 
change, this form answers also for infusions, decoctions, and 
emulsions, as explained further on. 

"We may also write the same prescription in another manner : 

R Potass, bicarb., 3 i. 

Acid, tartar., q. s. 

Morph. sulph., gr. i. 

Tr. valerian., 

Syr. sacchar., aa f 3 ii. 

Aquae, q. s. ad f3 iv. 

M. : ft. saturat. S. : . . . .■ 



But this is not as well written a prescription as the other. 
Infusions (Infusum, i, n.). 

Made by steeping vegetable substances in either hot or cold 
water, then straining. Leaves, soft parts of plants, or substances 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 227 

containing volatile principles, may be made into infusions; and, to 
the infusion, other substances may be added. 

It is a habit of many physicians to prescribe infusions without 
mentioning the amount of drug to be used in making them. While 
some pharmacopoeias direct that in such cases, Avhen there is no 
official formula specifying the exact quantities of drug, the latter 
shall be taken in a stated percentage proportion, yet it is better, 
in all cases, to prescribe the exact amount of drug from which a 
certain quantity of infusion is to be made. 



B Digitalis ccmcis., 


3 ss. 


Aquae, q. s. ut ft. infus. 


fS iiiss, 


Adde 




Potass, acetat., 


3ii. 


Syr. sacehari, 


f § ss. 


M. S.: 





The general outline of the prescription for a neutral mixture is 
here easily recognized, modified but very slightly to adapt it to in- 
fusions. 

Decoctions (Decoctum, i, n.). 

Made like the infusion, except that the drug is boiled with water 
for some time, then alloAved to cool, and strained. 

Decoctions are prescribed in the same manner as infusions, only 
changing infus. to decoct, in the formula for the prescription or 
in the subscription. Hard parts of plants, roots, rhizomes, woods, 
barks, etc., are made into decoctions, rather than infusions, when 
a preparation of this kind is desirable. Both of these preparations 
are, however, very infrequently prescribed at the present time, 
other more effective preparations, such as fluid extracts, deserv- 
ing preference in most cases. 

Mixtures (Mistura, ce, f.). 

The mixture is not, as the term is sometimes understood, a mix- 
ture of various substances, but it consists of some insoluble sub- 
stance which is merely suspended by aid of viscid excipients in the 
diluent in which it is dispensed. Some authors make no distinc- 
tion between a mixture of an insoluble powder or of an oil with 
water but call both "mixtures." We prefer the term "mixture" 



228 THE PRESCRIPTION 

for the preparations of the former kind, and use the term ■"emul- 
sion" for the latter. 

The mixture, according to this definition, is merely a liquid in 
which an insoluble powder has been suspended, and such a prepara- 
tion requires to be shaken before taking, as the powder soon settles 
to the bottom as a sediment. The official mistura cretce is an ex- 
ample of this class of preparations. Quinine, subnitrate of bis- 
muth, and other p reparations, are often prescribed in the form of 
mixtures. 

IJ Quininae sulphat., gr. xxx. 

Elix. tarax. comp., f %. iv. 

M. S. : 

The subscription is merely M. (misce — mix). It may be Ft. 
mist. (Fiat mistura, let a mixture be made) as well; but it must 
not be 31. ft. mist., as we would have here an inelegant tautology. 

Sometimes the subscription is written "M. Ft.," (misce, fiat,) 
which is of course absurd, as ft. must always be followed by the 
name of the preparation to be made. 

All the ingredients are written according to the usual order 
(base, adjuvant, etc.), and this is therefore a very easy prepara- 
tion to prescribe. It is somewhat different with the other form 
of mixture, more properly designated as 

Emulsions (Emulsum, i, n. or emulsio, onis, f.) 

Emulsions are preparations in which oils, oleo-resins, balsams, 
resins, camphor, etc., are suspended in water by means of an ex- 
cipient, which is sometimes termed the emulsifier, or emulgent 
(emulgens, entis, n.). 

We have already referred to the two kinds of emulsions, dif- 
fering in the mode of preparation, which have been designated as 
true and false emulsions. 

The true emulsion is one in which the drug contains both the 
oil and the emulgent, as in mistura ammoniaci, mistura amyg- 
dala, and mistura asafcetidce. 

Several seeds furnish true emulsions on being crushed and tritu- 
rated with water ; as, for instance, sweet almond seed, poppy seed, 
and hemp seed. Emulsions made from these seeds have little or 
no medicinal value, and are generally used as demulcent vehicles 
for other more active remedies of an acrid nature. 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 229 

A prescription for an emulsion is best written according to the 
general plan already suggested for neutral mixtures, infusions, 
and decoctions : 



R Sem. papaveris, 


5 ss. 


Aqua;, q. s. ut. ft. emuls. 


il iii. 


Adde 




Morph. sulph., gr. i. 




Syr. amygdala;, f| i. 




M. S. : 





Instead of writing adde, as in above formula, some write cola 
et adde (strain and add). It is self-evident, however that such 
preparations must be strained, and to say adde alone is, therefore, 
sufficient. This remark applies also to infusions and decoctions. 

The false emulsion is a more commonly employed form of 
emulsion, and consists of the substance to be emulsified, suspended 
in water by means of powdered acacia, yelk of egg, or some other 
emulgent. To the emulsion other substances may then be added, 
but when acacia is the emulgent, we can not add much alcoholic 
preparations, as the alcohol coagulates and precipitates the gum, 
and thereby destroys the emulsion. 

The form of prescription is similar to the above : 

R Copaibas, f % i. 

Acacia; pulveris, 
Aqua;, aa q. s. ut ft. emuls. f § ivss. 

Adde 

Spir. seth. nitros., 

Tinct. lavandul. comp., aa f 3 i. 

Syr. tolutan., f 3 i. 

M. S. : 

By memorizing the following scheme, and merely writing in the 
proper ingredients and quantities desired, no difficulty will be ex- 
perienced in prescribing emulsions: 

n 

Acacia; pulveris, 
Aqua;, aa q. s. ut ft. emuls. 
Adde 



M. S. 



230 THE PRESCRIPTION 

For instance : 

R 01. morrhuas, f S ii 

Acacias pulveris, 

Aquas, aa, q. s. ut ft. emuls. f 5 vi. 
Adde 

Tinct. opii camph., 

Syr. pruni virg., aa. f § i. 

M. S. 

Or, 



R Cliloroformi, 


2 Cc. 


01. olivas, 


15 Cc. 


Acacias pulveris, 




Aquas, aa q. s. ut ft. emuls. 


75 Cc. 


Adde 




Syr. tolutan., 


25 Cc. 


M. S. : 





Chloroform may readily be dispensed by mixing with two or 
three times its own volume of olive oil, and then emulsifying the 
oil with powdered acacia, as if there were no chloroform. The 
demulcent properties of the emulsion disguise the pungency of 
the chloroform excellently. 

There are, of course, other methods of prescribing emulsions; 
by simply enumerating the ingredients, for example, and using a 
proper subscription, thus : 



R 


01. ricini, 


fgss. 




Mucilag. acacias, 


f§ iss. 




Syr. sacchar., 


ft ss. 




Aquas menth. ppt., 


f § iss. 


M. 







This is a common, but poor method of prescribing emulsions, 
as it implies the use of an inferior method of making the emulsion. 
It would be better to write as follows : ^ 

IJ 01. ricini, f S ss. 

Syr. sacchari, f S ss. 

Mucilag. acacias, 

Aquas menth. ppt., aa q. s. ut ft. f § iv. 
M. et ft. emuls. S. : 

This is better, inasmuch as it leaves the determination of the 
exact quantity of acacia necessary to emulsify to the dispenser, 



EXTEMPORANEOUS PRESCRIPTIONS 231 

and the resulting emulsion will probably be good in proportion 
as the ability of the dispenser is so. 

Rectal Injections (Enema, atis, n.). 

These are very rarely ordered in prescriptions when desired as 
laxatives merely, in which case verbal instructions how to pre- 
pare them are usually given to the attendants. 

It is different, however, when it is desirable to introduce medi- 
cines in this manner, on account of inability to administer per os, 
as in extreme sensitiveness of the stomach, stricture of oesophagus, 
etc. 

Enemas for the administration of medicines or food, per rectum, 
should be small, 1 or 2 nuidounces at most, if possible, and the 
medicines should be dissolved in water, from which they are ab- 
sorbed much more readily than from mucilage or starch paste. 
Enemas may be larger if intended for local effect, as when infu- 
sion of quassia is used to wash out thread-worms from the rectum. 
Injections are usually prescribed as solutions. 

Liniments (Linimentum, i, n.) 

A mixture of oily, alcoholic, or other substances intended for ex- 
ternal application, Avith friction. There is nothing peculiar about 
writing prescriptions for liniments. 

They are often a mixture of incongruous ingredients which will 
not become homogeneous, even on shaking. Nevertheless, they may 
be very effective in this form, but require shaking immediately 
before use. Pharmaceutieally, liniments rarely are elegant pre- 
parations. 

In prescribing, we enumerate the ingredients, and say in the 
subscription — M. et ft. liminent., mix and let a liniment be made. 

Sometimes external applications, resembling lotions or liniments, 
are to be applied with a camel 's-hair brush. It has been suggested 
to call them pigmenta, or "paints," but as they are often color- 
less, it would be preferable to apply to them an old term, litus, us, 
m., 4, (from the Latin verb lino, 3, to besmear with a brush, 
to brush). It is true that this term was formerly mainly applied 
to solutions which were used with the probang to paint the tonsils 
or fauces, but the term would be equally appropriate for the prep- 
arations now called pigmenta. 



232 THE PRESCRIPTION 

Repetitions (Repetitio, onis, f.) 

A few words may be added in regard to repetitions. When a 
pharmacist dispenses any prescription, he places on the vial, box, 
gallipot, or other container, a label having, in the upper left hand 
corner, the number of the prescription, according to his file, and 
on the same line, to the right, the date on which the medicine was 
dispensed. 

If we desire the prescription to be repeated exactly in the same 
manner, we copy this number and date, and order, for example, 
as follows : 

Bepete No. 32, 517, d. 17, Till, '15. 

Or we may mention the character of the preparation, thus : 

Bepete misturam 5,689, datam 13, IV, '17. 

Or, 

Bepet. prcescr. pro. pil., No. 7,430, d. 25, VII, '16. 

The adjective datus, a, um, or its abbreviation d., means "given," 
and the last example would be, in English, "repeat the prescrip- 
tion for pills, No. 7,430, (which was) given on July 25, 1916." 

It is almost superfluous to state that such an order for a repeti- 
tion must necessarily be sent to the same pharmacy in which the 
original prescription Avas compounded, and where it is on file. 

Often, however, it is preferable to rewrite the prescription, even 
when precisely the same medicines are to be given, and to make 
some alteration in regard to the flavoring tinctures or syrups, so 
as to give the preparation a different appearance, taste, or smell. 
The use of variety in this regard may often disguise a most 
flagrant routine practice, or, when a remedy must be continued 
for a great length of time, in chronic or incurable troubles, pre- 
vent impatience and dissatisfaction on the part of the patients ■ 
and their friends. 

In regard to prescriptions containing narcotics the general gov- 
ernment, and in regard to prescriptions for liquors many state 
governments, forbid refilling or repeating; the physician should 
mark such prescriptions "ne repetatur" or "non repeie," mean- 
ing "it should not be repeated," or "do not repeat." 



extemporaneous prescriptions 233 

Concluding Kemarks. 

After we have finished writing a prescription, we should lay it 
aside for a few minutes, while we give directions in regard to diet 
and general management. 

Everyone has experienced the facility with which an error, 
once made, will be repeated, unless the mind has been occupied in 
the meantime with some other subject. When, in adding a column 
of figures, we once say, .7+5 is 13, we are apt to make this error 
again and again, unless we change and add from above downwards, 
instead of from below upwards, when the mistake will probably 
be found. Bookkeepers, in taking a trial-balance, sometimes have 
a trifling error of a few cents, which may elude detection for 
hours, until the tired accountant goes to bed discouraged and 
disgusted. Next day. when the mind is rested, the error is often 
noticed after a few minutes' search, and one wonders how it was 
possible that he did not see it the evening before. 

A similar experience may happen to the prescriber. He makes 
an error in the dose of some important ingredient, perhaps, and 
although he reads the prescription over several times he notices 
nothing wrong. If he lays the prescription aside for a few mo- 
ments, during which he gives his attention to another subject, 
and then reads the prescription over once more, as if it wore a 
stranger's prescription that he desired to criticize, he will almost 
surely discover the error and avert a possible accident to his patient, 
and serious injury to his own reputation. 

Never deliver a prescription to the patient before having 
carefully and critically examined it, and being sure that 
everything is correct. 

One word more : 

Keep a Case Book. 

It is a good plan to keep a record of all our cases, for easy refer- 
ence. For instance, a patient may be affected with a trouble from 
which he has sought relief from other physicians in vain, until our 
''superior knowledge," (!) or, perhaps, a fortunate accident, has 
enabled us to give the appropriate remedies. If we make no 
record of his case, file no prescription, then, when he comes to have 
the medicine or prescription repeated, we may have forgotten all 



234 



THE PRESCRIPTION 



about it, and it is just as likely as not that we do not succeed a 
second time in giving such prompt relief. 

For this and other reasons, it is advantageous to keep a record, 
or case book. This may be a book with printed skeleton 
formulas, or simply a blank book, in which we make the necessary 
memoranda of symptoms and treatment. 

If we have such a case book, it is a history of our therapeutical 
experience; a record of our cases, which will enable us to learn 
and profit from our successes as well as from our failures ; : it will 
aid us in taking a prominent rank in our profession ; to be welcome 
members and speakers in our societies; or, perhaps, instructive 
and respected teachers in our institutions of learning. 



Gnostic Symbol 

In all pagan religions the most wonderful fact in nature was the 
power of reproduction — the mystery of birth. Among ancient reli- 
gions, the Creator was imagined as sexual; for instance Uranus 





(Sky) was supposed to be male and to be covering Geo (Earth) in 
one unending sexual embrace. Conjugal couples (sexual union) were 
worshiped, as Brahma and Maya, Siva and Kali, etc., in India; 
Ptah and Pasht, Osiris and Isis, etc., in ancient Egypt; Jupiter 
and Juno, Vulcan and Venus, etc., in ancient Greece and Rome. 

In the early centuries of the Christian Era, there existed a sect, 
the Gnostics, who realized that the first commandment in the Bible 



GNOSTIC SYMBOL 235 

was (Gen. Ch. I, v. 27-28) : "So God created man in his own image 
. . . . male and female created he them ; and God .... 
said unto them, Be fruitful and multiply." The Gnostics, there- 
fore, taught that it Avas man's foremost duty to obey this com- 
mandment ; they expressed this in a sacred symbol, the Gnostic 
Symbol, illustrated to the left on page 234. It represents sexual 
union, the intertwining of the sacred male and female triangles. 
It is known to the Jews as David's shield and is sacred among 
them. The Hindus call it "Swastika," and believe it to be a 
sign of good luck; the Saivas mark their sacred vases with this 
sign ; the upright pyramid signifies Siva who Avith these three 
points unites in himself the attributes of purity, truth, and jus- 
tice ; the inverted or female triangle is his consort or Sakti — Kali — 
with the same attributes. The sign was used in the prehistoric 
temples of Yucatan. The Rosicrucians used it in a modified man- 
ner, as in the right hand figure. In early Christian times it was 
used as an amulet to ward off evil or sickness, or to cure disease, 
and was as highlv esteemed as was or is the cross. 



236 



THE PRESCRIPTION 



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PART V 



HISTORY OF THE PRESCRIPTION. 

We are so often tempted to believe that our ways of doing things 
are not only better but also different than those of times long past, 
that we do not always realize how closely our methods resemble 
those practiced during civilizations which are dead and almost 
forgotten. 

Progress in all sciences, arts and industries has been slow at 
first, gaining development more rapidly as the ages went on. Slow- 
ly and laboriously mankind has struggled on for thousands of 
years to acquire a knowledge of the fundamental truths of anatomy, 
physiology and pathology, but when once known these truths en- 
abled each succeeding century to add to them as much or more 
than had been learned in all previous time, and while the ratio of 
increase of knowledge in any one century may not have been 
greater than in any previous century, yet the actual volume of 
new knowledge grew enormously from century to century, just as 
capital invested at compound interest, for a long term of years, 
grows at the same steady ratio, and yet the last year will add more 
than any previous year and vastly more than did the second or 
third year. 

But, just as in invested capital, the original few hundreds or 
thousands of dollars remain part of the accumulated wealth of 
millions, so in science the original truths remain part of all sub- 
sequent knowledge, together with many ideas which are not truths, 
but which continue to be believed by the masses centuries after 
they have been disproved and discarded by the thinking men of 
later times. 

Probably the original idea in regard to the nature of diseases 
is and was alike among all primitive people, who believe that a 
demon enters the body and causes sickness. The most primitive 
effort to cure was, therefore, naturally a sort of fetichism, exor- 
cisms of the evil spirit or incantations of good ones to invoke their 

237 



238 THE PRESCRIPTION 

aid iii expelling and subduing the evil spirits, and thereby to cure 
disease. Such is the practice among savage tribes today and such, 
to a great extent, was at one time the practice among all the people 
of Europe. 

It would be folly to suppose that the "medicine men," or priests, 
who practiced these incantations did so with a knowledge of their 
uselessness, or without any belief in their efficacy. "We would 
credit these men with knowledge so advanced beyond that of their 
contemporaries that it is impossible to believe such differences to 
have existed. We must rather conclude that while some may have 
knowingly practiced imposition, yet in the main the superstitions 
of an age were shared in alike by priests and laymen, and that, if 
any class of persons in a community is more superstitious and 
credulous than another class, it is the class of priests whose object 
in life is an effort to foster blind, unquestioning faith in themselves 
and others. 

We can not for a moment doubt the honesty of intention or of 
belief on the part of so many of the leading minds in Europe and 
in this country, who in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth 
centuries professed a belief in witchcraft, and who countenanced 
and encouraged the trial of reputed witches by torture, and who 
sentenced them to death by fire. And just as these minds, noble 
in many regards and enlightened in many matters beyond the age 
in which they lived, jurists and theologians whose reputations have 
come down to us as of wise men of their generation, could, never- 
theless, believe the common superstitions of their times, so we must 
assume that superstitions practiced by physicians of former times, 
and traces of which continue in use to this day, were believed in 
by the physicians themselves, as well as by the people. 

When the physician and the priest was combined in one person, 
and incantations and superstitious rites formed the bulk of the 
medical treatment, that god who heard the most prayers or at 
whose temples most cures were effected, became the particular 
patron of medicine and was worshiped by the people. The priests 
naturally added to their superstitious rites the use of such material 
remedies of which they had any knowledge. 

Naturally, also, when accident, study or common sense had sug- 
gested some successful method of treating an injury or disease, it 
became advisable to record the treatment for future reference, and 



HISTORY OF THE PRESCRIPTION 239 

thus, probably, the first prescriptions were engraved on the walls 
of the temples or on pillars (often of phallic significance) in the 
temple grounds, or on votive tablets representing the part of the 
body healed, which were preserved in the temples for the benefit 
of future generations. 

The oldest medical records of which we have any knowledge are 
those of the Egyptians, who ascribed six medical books to their 
moon-god, Tlwtli, Tlwti, or Tet (the Greek god Hermes), who was 
the Egyptian god of letters and was ordinarily represented with 
the head of an ibis and carrying a tablet and a reed pen in his 

hands, but sometimes also Avith the nas, [^ (the masculine 



r 



sceptre symbolizing the phallus or male organs of generation). 
Among his titles were "lord of truth," "the great god," "the 
chief in the path of the dead," "the self-created, never-born," 
and "the scribe of the truth." Eawlinson says that it was "his 
special office to be present in Amenti when souls were judged, 
to see their deeds weighed in the balance, and to record the 
result. He is also in this world the revealer of God's will. It 
is he who composes the 'Ritual of the Dead,' or at any rate its 
more important portions. It is also he who, in the realms below, 
writes for the good souls, with his own fingers, the 'Book of Res- 
pirations' which protects them, sustains them, gives them life, 
causes them to 'breathe with the souls of the gods forever and 
ever.' " 

To this god the Egyptians ascribed forty-two books, six of which 
were on medical subjects, anatomy, practice of medicine, eye dis- 
eases, women's diseases, surgical appliances and materia medica, 
but some authors ascribed to Thoth a much larger number of 
books ; Seleucus, for instance, 20,000 and Manetho even 35,525. In 
the winter of 1872-73, Ebers, the German Egyptologist, obtained 
from an Arab a well-preserved papyrus which had been found 
fourteen years previously among the bones of a mummy, near 
Thebes. This papyrus, from its contents, is judged to be one of 
the original six works on medicine mentioned above, and Ave learn 
from it that the prescription was already used in its present form 
at least 1550 years before Christ. It is yelloAvish-broAAm, the letters 
of the titles and quantities being red, of the ingredients and di- 
rections, black; its length is sixty feet, and it contains a great 



240 THE PRESCRIPTION 

number of formulas for medicines, salves, etc., for many diseases. 
Its age was determined by a calendar in the work itself and by 
the names of kings, and was fixed by Ebers at 1552 B. C, at which 
time Moses was about twenty-one years of age. This work was 
written in ancient Hieratic characters, which were read from right 
to left, and which had about the same relation to Hieroglyphic 
characters that our written script has to our printed letters.* 

It appears from the writings of Herodotus that the physicians 
of Egypt were considered the most learned in the world, and that 
they practiced specialties, being divided into oculists, dentists, 
surgeons, accoucheurs (mostly women, but also men), etc. From 
the researches of Ebers we learn that the physicians wrote pre- 
scriptions which were compounded by a special class of medical 
men who were practically apothecaries or dispensing pharmacists, 
and Rawlinson says that all physicians were separate, as a class, 
from the priests. 

These physicians had to memorize the six medical books of Thoth, 
and if they followed closely the precepts contained therein and 
the patient died, they were held blameless, but if it was found that 
a physician departed in his practice from the prescribed rules, he 
was put to death, no matter what the result of his treatment might 
have been. Nevertheless, Egyptian practice was already far ad- 
vanced and specialized, and their materia medica, contained com- 
pound remedies, such as the "Nepenthes," which is also mentioned 
in the Odyssey, and many of the remedies which we employ today 
were already in use long before the times of Rameses, Menephtha 
or Moses. 

Centuries before our own era Egyptian medical knowledge had 
spread throughout the then known world, and from Greece and 
Asiatic countries men came to Alexandria to learn the art of the 
physician and then to return to their own country to practice this 
art. Egyptian methods of practice, therefore, probably prevailed 
among all the civilized people of those days. 

We find some collateral evidence of the existence of two distinct 
branches of medical men, physicians and druggists, in the book of 
Ecclesiasticus, or The Wisdom of Jesus, the Son of Sirach, 
in the Bible, where Jesus says : 



*See Frontispiece and the translation of the same, on page 236. 



HISTORY OF THE PRESCRIPTION 241 

"Honour a physician with the honour due unto him for the uses which ye 
may have of him, for the Lord hath created him. 

"For of the Most High eometh healing, and he shall receive honour of the 
king. 

' ' The skill of the physician shall lift up his head ; and in the sight of great 
men he shall be in admiration. 

"The Lord hath created medicines out of the earth; and he that is wise 
will not abhor them. * s * * 

"Of such doth the apothecary make a confection, and of his works there 
is no end ; and from him is peace all over the earth. ' ' 

The exact date at which this book was written is not known, 
but it was written about the time of the books of the later prophets 
of the Old Testament, and Jesus, the Son of Sirach, probably lived 
about the time of Haggai and Zechariah, or about 500 or 525 B. 
('. This would make the book about contemporaneous with the 
close of the 26th and last Egyptian Dynasty. During this dynasty 
(B. C. 650-527), as well as during some of the previous dynasties 
(even as early as the 19th dynasty, during which the exodus oc- 
curred), the Egyptians frequently came in contact with the As- 
syrians and other Asiatic people, as well as with the Hebrews, both 
in the peaceful pursuits of trade and in war ; so that it is prob- 
able that the Egyptian method of practicing medicine was known 
and prevailed through all these lands, and that prescriptions were 
written by one class of practitioners and dispensed by others 
wherever Egyptian science had penetrated. 

Another very early record of prescriptions was found in Cunei- 
form inscriptions, and one of these ancient formulas tells how to 
prepare a remedy for a "diseased gall-bladder which devours the 
top of a man's heart." 

Among the Greeks Chiron was reputed one of the most learned 
among the founders of the science of medicine, and among his 
pupils were Achilles, Jason, iEsculapius, Peleus, Odysseus and 
others. In these earliest Greek times it does not appear to have 
been the habit of the physicians to prescribe and for others to com- 
pound or dispense. JEsculapius used simple herb-remedies, pray- 
ers and incantations, and as these latter often took the form of a 
song or poem, they were called "carmen." This incantation re- 
mained a prominent part of the treatment until quite recent times, 
if, indeed, we must not confess that the carmen still survives in 
the form of songs and prayers practiced at the present time. 



242 THE PRESCRIPTION 

When an effective treatment was discovered the prescription 
was engraved on the door-posts or on the pillars of the temples of 
Jilsculapius. The latter, it must be remembered, was not a person, 
but a secret society which existed for many hundred years, and 
prescriptions were handed down from generation to generation to 
members who were oath-bound not to reveal them to the general 
public. 

In Eome, among the earliest of prescriptions were those of the 
Sybilline books of oracles, the directions in which were, however, 
of a mystic nature and not like our prescriptions of today. But 
there were already many prescriptions which were known not 
only to the priests and iEsculapeans, but also to the general pub- 
lic, and among others the Censor Cato is mentioned as having pos- 
sessed an old prescription book, the directions of which he followed 
in treating himself and his friends. These ancient Greek pre- 
scriptions were of a curious character, according to our present 
ideas. For instance, they directed that no medicine should be ad- 
ministered to a sick cow by a woman; they lauded cabbage as a 
cure for almost every ill ; placed great stress on the number 3 and 
supposed medicines to be more active when three drams, three 
ounces or three times any quantity was given, and they at the 
same time directed the repetition of cabalistic words and incan- 
tations. 

Some of the remedies were, however, of value, as, for instance, 
when Herodikus directed consumptives to drink the milk direct 
from the breasts of women. This physician is one of the earliest 
of whom it is recorded that he charged a fee for his advice and 
prescriptions. 

From one of the Hippocratic books it appears that the Greek 
physicians generally prepared their own remedies, which were 
administered by their pupils, who remained with the sick and 
watched and reported on the symptoms. There were, therefore, 
at that early time few, if any, prescriptions in the modern sense of 
the word, although there was a separate class of root diggers 
(rhizotomes) who gathered and prepared the medicinal plants, 
often accompanying the preparation by mystic and superstitious 
rites. Sometimes the rhizotomes prepared compound remedies 
and were then called pharmacopoles, among whom are enumerated 
Thrasyas, Alexias, Aristophilus and Aristotle. 



HISTORY OF THE PRESCRIPTION 243 

The pharmacy of these times was very crude, and even the pre- 
scriptions for compound remedies were crude and comparatively 
simple. 

But after the Greeks had come into closer contact with Egyp- 
tian civilization and customs, or during the period of the high- 
est achievements and reputation of the Alexandrian school under 
the Ptolemies (about 300 B. C), there was a practice of medicine 
more nearly like our own. Herophilus, for instance, was a friend 
of more complicated prescriptions, and taught that whenever the 
causes of diseases were complicated the remedies should be corre- 
spondingly compound. The profession of medicine became divided 
into physicians proper, surgeons and rhizotomes or pharmacopoles, 
the latter being more nearly like the druggists of our own times. 
The physicians seem to have been very self-conceited and to have 
had an exalted opinion of their own importance, for they thought 
it beneath their dignity to do any manual work, and so they left 
operations to the surgeons and the compounding and dispensing 
of medicines to the pharmacopoles, both of which classes the 
physicians considered as beneath themselves and as their servants. 
As Kurt Sprengel naively says: "Since this time the druggists 
were the hand-servants of the physicians. " Necessarily, such a 
method uf practice demanded that the physicians should write 
their directions for the guidance of the pharmacopoles in com- 
pounding the medicines, and, undoubtedly, in the main, these 
took the form of the prescriptions as used today. 

Celsus records that this division of labor, or specialization, was 
of the greatest benefit to surgery. At this time, there were physi- 
cians whose names come to our own times only in connection with 
the names of remedies which they had originated and with which 
their names became identified. The prescriptions for some of 
these preparations were quite complicated, the celebrated Theriac 
of Mithridates, for instance, containing fifty-four ingredients. 

We have already learnt that from earliest times the public, as 
well as the physicians themselves, had great faith in incantations 
and invocations of the gods. But in the Oriental nations these be- 
liefs reached their most extravagant development during the last 
century before Christ and during the earliest centuries of the 
Christian era, and the physicians of all the then known countries 



244 THE PRESCRIPTION 

were addicted to these practices. We must remember that these 
times are even now supposed by many to have been peculiarly rich 
in miraculous events, and many of the reputed miracles of that 
time are believed by those who would not under any circum- 
stances give credence to miracles claimed to have occurred in more 
recent times. Human credulity and superstition among the 
Oriental nations, Jewish as well as Heathen, ran riot about the 
time of the beginning of the Christian era, and this had its effect 
on the practice of medicine as well as on the prescription itself. 
After the birth of Christ, Christian and Jewish writers tried to 
out-do each other in their superstitious vagaries, and science was 
not only retarded but set back many centuries in its course, and 
the effect was that eventually all human energies stagnated during 
a long period of time, commonly referred to as the "dark ages." 
Pagan, Jewish and Christian physicians and theologians vied with 
each other to invent fantastic theories, for which they claimed the 
faith of the public. Barbaric words, phallic symbols or the names 
of their gods were used by Pagan physicians in preparing their 
medicines or in writing their prescriptions, and when we study 
the history of these times we are compelled to believe that the 
physicians did not practice these superstitions from a desire to 
deceive the public, but because they believed in them themselves. 
There were here and there men like Possidonius and Philagrius 
among the Greeks (about A. D. 100) or Galen (about A: D. 150) 
who declared against these superstitions, but the age was one in 
which their voices were unheeded and without effect. 

Theosophic vagaries and sophistries took the place of common 
sense, and no proposition was so absurd that it did not find be- 
lievers. In fact, the very grotesqueness and improbability of some 
of these propositions seemed to recommend them all the more to 
the faith of the believers. 

A school of philosophers was founded which considered the 
study and allegorical explanation of the Holy Writings to be the 
chief end in life. Belief in magic and the - study of demonology 
became prevalent, and Apollonius of Tyana (about A. D. 96) in- 
vented the talismans, which consisted of medals with mystic, holy 
or barbaric words or signs, and which worked cures of all diseases. 



HISTORY OP THE PRESCRIPTION 245 

just as their descendants, the amulets of the church, are by many 
believed to do today. The theory of demoniac influence as the 
cause of disease became again a common belief, and exorcisms 
took the place of rational treatment. Certain names of Chaldaic, 
Persian, Phoenician or Hebrew origin were supposed to be particu- 
larly effective in the conjuration of evil spirits, and "Sabaoth" 
and "Adonai" were thought to be among the most powerful of 
these words. Jamblichus (about A. D. 307) said that especially 
those words which had no meaning to the human mind were the 
most powerful in their effects on the infernal beings. Galen, who 
was opposed to all this superstition of his times, says that many 
physicians thought medicines to lose much, if not all, of their 
potency if they were not prescribed by their Babylonian or Egyp- 
tian names. Certain mystic poems recited by the physicians over 
the sick were credited with powerful healing influences, or the 
physicians wrote such verses on paper instead of a regular pre- 
scription, and these mystic prescriptions were either carried as 
charms or were rolled into pellets and swallowed as a remedy by 
the patient. 

A B R AC A D A B R A 

AB R AC AD A B R 

ABR AC AD AB 

ABRAC AD A 

AB R AC A D 

A B R A C A 

ABRAC 

A B R A 

ABR 

A B 

A 

A cabalistic word-charm anciently used as an incantation or 
conjuration ; it was also engraved on medals, when it was supposed 
to guard the wearer against diseases and evils of all kinds. The 
word is said to be from Ab, Ben, Ruach, ACADosch, Hebrew for 
Father, Son and Holy Ghost. The word Abracadabra was ar- 
ranged in various ways, of which the above, in the form of the 
sacred feminine triangle, was one of the most highly esteemed. 

Among the Pagans, certain symbolic (phallic) signs or repre- 
sentations of the genital organs were used, or the symbols which 



246 THE PRESCRIPTION 

represented their gods : \j for Jupiter, )K for Mercury, Q 

for Venus, etc. Among Roman matrons and maidens jewels or 
charms in the shape of the phallus or masculine generative organs 
or trinity were worn as amulets to ward off evil and sickness, 
while among the Christians the symbol of the cross (also of phal- 
lic origin and significance) was thought to be particularly effica- 
cious. Chrysostomos preached that the cross, carried as a charm, 
could open locked doors, could counteract the poisonous effects 
of hemlock (conium), and render the bites of venomous and rabid 
animals harmless, and it was even believed that it could raise 
the dead, and many resurrections from the dead were ascribed to 
the bishops of the early Christian churches. The bones and ashes 
of martyrs, holy shrines (Pagan as well as Christian), pilgrim- 
ages, etc., worked wonderful cures. Prayers, the laying on of 
hands, anointing with oil, and other superstitious practices, Avere 
credited with more medicinal virtue than the material remedies. 

The figure ^J or jpjljj was engraved on amulets and was 

considered of great virtue. The words "Sabaoth, " "Adonai, " 
"Amen,*" etc., were used frequently as charms. Alexander recom- 
mended a barbaric formula against pestilence. Basilides (about 
A. D. 117) propounded a theory that from the Eternal Father 
came Nus ; this was Christ, who begat Logos ; from Logos came 
Phronesis, and the latter produced Sophia and Dynamis, from 
whom sprang 365 angels, who then built heaven. The names of 
these angels were used in conjuration for producing great results. 
The name of Christ is ' ' ABRAXAS, ' ' which esoteric, mystic name 
was explained to include in itself the number 365 and to be the 
noblest emanation from God. 



*The word "Amen," which even now is used by all Christian people at the close of 
their prayers, was formerly also used as an opening invocation in church services, last 
wills and testaments, etc. It is now generally explained to mean "So let it be!" but 
it was originally an invocation of the Egyptian deity, Ammon. According to Rawlin- 
son, Ammon was the great god of Thebes, the southern Egyptian capital; among his 
titles were: "Lord of Heaven," "Eldest of the Gods," etc. Ammon was ordinarily in- 
voked as "Amen" or Amen-Ra," an invocation meaning "Chief," "King of th^ Gods," 
or "Lord of all Earthly Thrones." The syllables "Amen" occur in quite a number of 
names of priests, etc., as part of them. 

This invocation, therefore, appeals to the most powerful god to hear the prayer, 
and as Ammon's disposition to hear and answer prayers, and his ability to grant the 
request, seem never to have been questioned, we can readily understand how in the 
course of time this old Egyptian invocation came to mean "So let it be!" and how the 
word came to be considered such a powerful charm in compelling good and bad super- 
natural powers to work the will of him who used the invocation. 



HISTORY OF THE PRESCRIPTION 



247 




In the early centuries of the Christian era, amulets or charms against witch- 
craft, diseases and misfortune, were much in vogue. I, II and III represent 
"Abraxas" medals, so called because the word "Abraxas" was a powerful 
word-charm (see page 246). The letters a, b, r, a, x, a, s, in Greek, express 
the numeral 365. An Abraxas medal was any gem or talisman inscribed with 
mystical words or figures. The Eomans used similar charms; and IV repre- 
sents a priapic amulet (bearing the image of Priapus), used by maidens and 
matrons to prevent sterility. These priapic charms were often realistic figures 
of the phallus. 



248 



THE PRESCRIPTION 



The pupils of Basilides then invented the Abraxas medals, carved 
gems or talismans, with the figure of a man with the head of a 
cock and the legs like serpents, with a whip in his hand, and with 
some mystic word, such as "Jao, " "Jaldaboth, " Adonai, " "Sab- 

o o 

aoth," "Eloah" or "Or." Also with the figure JSJ or 

o o 

These medals were considered most powerful charms for prevent- 
ing and curing diseases. (See page 235.) 

Even the Christians adopted laying-on of hands, anointing, etc. 
While among the Christians the sign of the cross was considered 
to be of particular virtue, the Greeks and Romans used the signs 

of the gods, 1* JK and ^D the latter sign representing Venus, 

being a modification of the Egyptian ' ' ankh, ' ' ,\A the ' ' symbol of 

life," so commonly represented as carried in the hands of the 
Egyptian deities, and which later on became the ''crux ansata" 
of the Christian Church, and which symbolized sexual congress. 
And to these symbols, used alone, or as invocations or charms 
on prescriptions for material remedies, were ascribed the same 
wonderful effects that today are supposed to be exercised by relics 
of saints and martyrs, pieces of the true cross, blessed medals and 
amulets, and by four-leaved clover or the horse-shoe (a yonic 
charm or a modified representation of the ecclesiastical "door of 
life" or the external female organs of generation) for good luck, 
madstones for rabies, buckeyes for rheumatism and potatoes for 
Bright 's disease. 

Four hundred years after Christ, Marcellus of Bordeaux recom- 
mended the removal of a foreign body from the eye by touching 
the eye and repeating three times: "Tetune resonco bregan gresso," 
spitting after each repetition ; to draw an impacted substance 
from the oesophagus, by saying three times nine times: " Os gor- 
gonis basio;" to cure colic, by engraving the following on gold 
medals and carrying the amulet in the pocket: 



L 


* 


M 


© 


R 


J A 


L 


* 


M 


© 


R 


J A 


L 


* 


M 


© 


R 


J A 



Remedies were most active when compounded on Thursdays; 



HISTORY OF THE PRESCRIPTION 249 

Wiamnus. spina Cliristi was a valuable remedy because Christ 
was crowned with thorns. In croup, accompanied by inflamed 
uvula, a grape or raisin was given (on account of the similarity of 
the name uva to uvula), and the physician repeated three times: 
"Uva uvam emendat;" when a patient had a felon On his finger 
he had to touch a wall and recite the. following carmen three times: 
"Pu, pu, pu; nitnquam ego te videam per parietem repere;" pa- 
tients had to stand or lie facing the east while taking medicine. 

About this time other remedies were used, such as hanging a 
rabbit 's heart about the neck to cure intermittent fevers ; boil- 
ing and eating a new born puppy to prevent colic for the bal- 
ance of one 's life ; while, according to some authors, talismans 
and amulets were active only when prepared during a waning 
moon. 

These superstitions went so far that, as is related, the physicians 
of the Emperor Constantine recommended that he should bathe, 
daily in the blood of freshly killed infants in order that he might 
cure himself of a serious sickness ; but it is also related that the 
Apostle Paul appeared to Constantine in his dream and warned 
him not to use this remedy, and in consequence of this dream 
Constantine was converted to Christianity. 

Aetius (A. D. 545) gave a formula for a certain salve, the in- 
gredients of which were to be melted together and then stirred 
until the salve was done, while the druggist kept repeating the 
incantation : ' ' The god of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob render this 
remedy active ! ' ' He recommended that when a bone was swal- 
lowed the patient should repeat the carmen: "Even as Christ 
rescued Lazarus from the grave and Jonah from the whale, so 
come thou forth, oh, bone!" or, "The martyr Blasius and the 
servant of Christ command thee come out or pass down." 

Alexander of Tralles (A. D. 543) cured colic by an iron ring 
on which was engraved the symbol of the gnostics, two interlaced 

triangles, ^6/W symbolizing sexual congress, a symbol which 



A 



somewhat modified by the symbol or sign of Venus, \J , being 

placed in the center, and surrounded by a snake, bent into a 
circle and with its tail in its mouth emblematical of sexual passion 
or eternity, forms the seal of the Theosophic societies in St. Louis. 



250 THE PRESCRIPTION 

Or he used an amulet consisting of an olive leaf, on which he 
wrote with ink "KA.POI.A." 

Gradually, Grecian mythology, with its phallic symbology im- 
ported from Egypt and India, yielded to Christianity and disap- 
peared. Jehovah had conquered Jupiter and displaced him; in- 
vocations were addressed most commonly to Jesus Christ; the 
virgin Mary (Ma-r-ia, "mother of God") had taken the place 
of Hygeia, or of the Indian goddess "Maya," wife of Brahma, 
"the mother of the gods," or of the Egyptian goddess "Ma" 
("mother of the gods"), the Greek goddess "Ma-i-a" ("mother 
of the gods"), the Spanish "Maya," the French "Maye, " the 
English "May-Queen." The saints Cosmos and Damian, had 
taken the place of iEseulapius in public estimation, and all traces 
of the heathen practices and invocations had disappeared from the 

prescription, except the little stroke in JJ , the reminder of the 

V 

It would lead too far and scarcely be pertinent to the history of 
the Prescription to consider the superstitions associated with as- 
trology and alchemy, except, perhaps, to remind of. the many 
formulas for the preparation of the "elixir of life," which was 
to allow man to live forever and to be forever young. 

A practice also connected with astrology and alchemy, and which 
had great influence on the form of the prescription, consisted in 
substituting various signs for the names of materials, apparatuses 
and processes used in constructing formulas and in the directions 
for compounding them. A complete list of these signs was pub- 
lished in 1783 in a German book entitled " Medicinisch-Chymisch 
und Alchemistiches Oraculum, oder Clavis Sapiential" ("Medico- 
Chemical and Alchemistic Oracle, or Key to Wisdom"), which is 



once powerful Jupiter, 



*In a review of the first edition of this book, a pharmaceutical journal ridiculed the 
idea that the stroke in If was really a relic of a superstitious invocation of Jupiter, 

and said that it was a fantastic notion of Dr. Paris, published in his "Pharmacologia." 
That this is not so, and that the symbol ft* has long been associated with Jupiter, 



appears from the "Medicinisch-Chymisch and Alchemistiches Oraculum," published in 
1783, to which reference will be made again, and in which "Recipe" is represented as 
shown in the table of signs. One of these signs is clearly the sign for Jupiter, while 



HISTORY OF THE PRESCRIPTION 251 

claimed by the author to be based on a work of the year 1549 and 
on a manuscript of the year 1300. A few of these signs are re- 
produced to give an idea of their nature: 

Alchemistic Symbols. 



Albumen 
Alcohol 
Alkali .. 
Alum . . 
Arsenic 
Borax . . 

camphor 2&& , 000< / OCOQO; 



Drachm 
Gold . . 
Gum . . 
Honey 
Iron . . 






another is but a slight modification of it. Farther evidence is, however, to be obtained 
by an examination of the symbols for tin, Stannum, called in alchemistic works "Jupi- 

ter." I copy only a few of the symbols for Jupiter, as follows: U# £fa Y\ 

of these symbols is the letter R, and it proves that the letter R and the symbols Ar 

*f> ..r ■ • 

and If were interchangeable and synonymous at one time, and all meant "Jupiter. 

It must be further considered that this book was printed before Dr. Paris wrote, 
and that the author of it claims to have gathered his information from a book pub- 
lished in the year 1549 and from a manuscript of the year 1300. There can be no 

reasonable doubt, therefore, that If originally meant an invocation to Jupiter, and 



later times was interpret 
as been recently suggest! 

A 



only in later times was interpreted as "Recipe." 

It has been recently suggested to use the Greek letter Delta, a pyramidal triangle, 



a sign for the drachm. It will be noticed, by reference to the table of 

alchemistic symbols from the "Oraculum," that a similar sign was used several hun- 
dred years ago. 



252 THE PRESCRIPTION 

Olive oil 60, A, OO, O^ 

Ounce fc,^' 33,'<3v ^ 17 (^ , 

Recipe SX>,*&, fy,&> /f' 

Scruple ^ «-^/Tt*, 

«h. It 0, <*v£<wA Wftfl$ 

White wine. ... 2s / V\ / \f , .^S^JOC, J\l , 

When a prescription was written and the physician desired to 
designate any of the substances for which these signs were in- 
vented he would use such a sign instead of the name of the 
preparation, and the effect on the appearance of the prescription 
may be readily imagined, and it is evident that the physician 
succeeded perfectly in making his preparations a mystery to the 
patient. 

This method of prescribing continued to be used, in some parts 

* 

As corroborative of the suggestion made on page 59, that the ounce sign, m^ , is 

3d 
, with an extra hook added to designate the next higher 

denomination, I call attention to the double drachm sign, ^ ^. used as a sign for 
the ounce in the same work. »^_ 

It is also curious to note that the scruple sign, ^9 , which we use today, was ap- 

oarently not in use in Germany in 1755, for it is not given in the list of signs in the 

•'Oraculum." It is quoted as a sign for "burnt copper" or "crocus veneris," •!« S is 

given as the only sign for "Obulus scripulus semis," a half scruple or ten grains. One 
of the scruple signs is a half circle without the small horizontal stroke. 



HISTORY OF THE PRESCRIPTION 



253 



of Europe until quite recent times, and I was acquainted with 
pharmacists who, in their apprentice years, had personal experi- 
ence in compounding prescriptions in which some of the ingredi- 
ents were designated by some of these signs. I myself met with 
some of these signs on old shelf-ware in the store of Dr. Enno 
Sander, under whose preceptorship I acquired my knowledge of 
the drug business; our shelf bottle for alcohol, for instance, was 



labeled, <\PJ5 



I also show some prescription case vials, labeled with alchem- 
istic hieroglyphics. These vials belong to Dr. H. M. Whelpley, 
of St. Louis. 



ierf 


-9 

- i 


ift i \ 





Alchemistic Labels. 



The origin of these signs is sometimes quite curious. Thus, the 
symbol for vinegar ("vinum morhium," or dead wine) is a cross, 

J* , because the Roman soldiers offered vinegar on a sponge to 
the crucified Christ. 

As all our customs, arts, religions, philosophies, sciences, etc., 
bear traces of the influence of the phallic worships of former days, 
so also do alchemy and astrology abound with references to phal- 
lic ideas and symbols. 



254 THE PRESCRIPTION 

Gold is represented by various signs, of which ^S asserts 
the supremacy of the masculine principle in nature. The sign 
f-JJ is evidently the old Egyptian vCJy very slightly 

changed, and shows the male and female principles in conjuga- 
tion. The sign for "caleinatio auri, " *0O^ > (burning gold 




to ashes or powder, an art now lost), is a very mystic and esoteric 
symbol, representing four phalli, or masculine organs, meeting in 
one common yoni, or feminine cleft, and resembles the symbol for 
the "Four Great Gods" of the Phoenicians, which is also the origin 
of the Maltese Cross. 

The sign for copper (Venus) is Q , a modification of the Egyp- 
tian ankh, jX and asserts the greater importance of the fem- 
inine attributes ; the sign for antimony, TC , asserts the suprem- 
acy of the male principle in nature. 

Mercury is represented by the caduceus, a phallic rod with two 
serpents (symbols for sexual passion) twined about it; or, in 

one of the signs, C*\ li , by a symbolic representation of a linga- 

in-yoni, an erect male organ inserted in the female cleft, 

A metal king, "regulus," the little globule of metal reduced by 
the blowpipe, was represented by a crown, ]*^j > which 
was placed on the sign of the metal. Thus, antimony being pt 
the sign for " antimonii regulus" was at 

The elements ("elementa," or " principia corporum" — at that 
time air, earth, fire and water) were expressed by the sign of the 

gnostics, x A > signifying sexual embrace, it being believed that all 
compounds were the result of sexual union of the elements. The 
phallic shape of the symbol Qrf |^ f° r a " receptaculum" is 
plain enough, though the application seems obscure. 

The book referred to contains 1,852 symbols for 252 different 
articles, of which a very large proportion show traces of phallic 
meaning. 



HISTORY OF THE PRESCRIPTION 255 

It is not necessary to more than remind of that other aberration 
'of the human mind, when it was supposed that for every human 
ailment some remedy might be found among human or animal 
excrements. Probably to this time must be traced the origin of 
the use of human urine as a remedy for internal use, as often prac- 
ticed among the lower classes to this day. 

It seems that when the human mind had exhausted the depths 
of superstition it naturally ran to filth. A reaction had to come ! 
For nearly a thousand years these degrading superstitions had 
controlled the practice of medicine, and during all these centuries 
there are but few real physicians mentioned as having lived in the 
Oriental countries, and none of note as having lived among the 
Occidental European people, and it is not until about the seventh 
or eighth centuries of our era that we find again records of ra- 
tional medical practice in various countries. 

Prescriptions in our present sense, orders for active medicinal 
agents, must have been few and far between during these "dark 
ages." It is true that these superstitions did not vanish at once 
nor entirely, for many of them suiwive to this day. Saints and 
martyrs, crosses and amulets, pilgrimages and shrines, laying on 
of hands and anointing are still considered of value among Chris- 
tians, as well as among Heathens. The madstone and the buckeye, 
the four-leaved clover and the divining rod still have their de- 
votees. The "Christian Science People" and the "Faith Curers" 
would again substitute prayers and incantations for rational medi- 
cine and hygiene. Among orthodox Mohammedans verses from 
the Koran are still written on paper and carried as charms, or 
rolled into pellets and swallowed as prophylactics or as cures ; or 
they write verses on leaves and macerate these leaves in water, 
which then becomes as valuable and powerful medicine, as. for 
instance, the Homeopathic dilutions. To prepare the infusion 
from such a leaf a "ceremonial mortar" is used, one of which 
is here illustrated. It is made of brass, beautifully engraved 
with eight figures of the gnostic sign, and eight cartouches each 
of which contains an inscription — Arabic — with some pious motto, 
as "God is the only physician," "Put thy faith in God," "God 
is willing to help," etc. The photograph on page 256 sIioavs 
such a mortar, belonging to my own collection. Not very many 
years ago a writer in a prominent newspaper of St. Louis, recom- 



256 



THE PRESCRIPTION 



mended as a positive cure for the bite of a rabid or venomous 
animal a formula, consisting of a string of senseless letters, which 
were to be written on a piece of paper and swallowed, and a dozen 
or more citizens, giving their names and addresses, testified to the 
efficacy of the charm. This formula, the writer said, was an heir- 
loom in his family, having been given to his great-grandfather or 
grandfather by a priest out of gratitude for some kindness done 
the latter. 




The so-called "sympathetic remedies" are well known: The 
removal of a wart by rubbing it with a newly drawn tooth and then 
burying the tooth; curing the bite of a dog by laying on it a few 
of the hairs of the dog ; and the belief that if ever the dog becomes 
mad in the future the bitten person will also do so; and the fre- 
quent demand to have a dog that has bitten a person killed is a 
remnant of the same superstition. The belief in the influence 
of the moon on matters of common occurrence (related to the 
worship of the Virgin) is still widespread, for many people imagine 



HISTORY OF THE PRESCRIPTION 257 

that if they sleep where the light of the moon falls upon them they 
will become lunatics (the very term referring to the moon) or som- 
nambulists ; that the ripening of fruits and vegetables is influenced 
beneficially or otherwise by the full moon, the beliefs in this re- 
gard not agreeing — that the cutting of the hair should not be done 
during the increasing moon, according to some barbers, or not 
during the decreasing moon, according to others; that vegetables 
or plants, the edible portion of which grows above ground, should 
be planted during the waxing moon, while those whose edible por- 
tions grow underground should be planted during the waning 
moon ; or that grapes and other vines should be pruned and hens 
put to hatch just after the full moon, etc. 

The believers in the mysterious powers of a seventh son of a 
seventh son, and in the advice and prophecies of such works as 
Zadkiel's Astrological Almanac may be counted by thousands, if 
not by millions, and fortune tellers still do a thriving business 
in prophecies and sale of charms ; ' ' weather prophets ' ' make an 
easy living; gamblers and betting men generally put their faith 
in mascots, and the belief in lucky and unlucky days or numbers 
is all but universal. 

We have learned that the prescription was used in the same 
manner as it is among us today at least 1550 years before Christ, 
and among the Greeks at least 300 years before the beginning of 
the Christian era. A study of the history of medicine entitles us 
to the conclusion that, ever since those remote times, there have 
always been physicians who only prescribed and pharmacists who 
only dispensed, although they may have been very few during a 
long time, and also, that at all times, just as now, there have been 
numerous other physicians who dispensed their own remedies, and 
thus combined both professions in one person. 

Our positive knowledge on the renaissance of the prescription 
among those nations whom we consider as the sources of our 
customs, dates back for more than a thousand years; for, as we 
have learned above, it is altogether probable that the use of ra- 
tional prescriptions and of carefully compounded rational medi- 
cines was exceedingly uncommon among the European nations 
generally during the earlier centuries of the Christian era. But 
it seems that many of the old doctrines and customs of the Alex- 
andrian school had been kept alive by the Arabs, who used a more 



258 THE PRESCRIPTION 

rational system of treatment and less superstitious practices than 
the other people mentioned, and from this source scientific medi- 
cine again found its way to the Occidental countries. This does 
not mean that Arabian medical science was of a very advanced 
order, for it was not, but that the Arabs had preserved the right 
spirit and a desire to study and observe rationally. Just how 
early the Saracens made their influence felt is uncertain, some 
authors stating that a university at Dschondisabur was established 
during the time of the Emperor Aurelian (about 270 A. D.), or 
nearly fifty years before the conversion of the Emperor Con- 
stantine in the year 323. Serious doubts are, however, entertained 
by other authors in regard to this statement, and it is perhaps, 
safer to begin With more firmly established facts. It is certain 
that soon after the year 600 A. D. reference to this university is 
met with frequently, and that it enjoyed a great reputation, espe- 
cially as a center for medical learning. About 750 years after 
Christ, Bagdad became an important university city, as many as 
6,000 students being present at a time from all parts of the world. 
Here were established hospitals for clinical instruction and public 
drug stores at which students of pharmacy received instruction in 
their art; and this university retained its eminence until the thir- 
teenth century. 

The Arabs had meanwhile overrun and subjugated many coun- 
tries in Southern Europe, and especially Spain owed the period 
of its highest prosperity to the rule of the Saracens or Moors. The 
university at Cordova was the most celebrated in the world for 
several centuries, and contained a library of 250,000 volumes. 
In Sevilla, Toledo and Murcia in Spain were other universities 
scarcely less celebrated. 

That which interests us most here is the fact that, at a time 
when Occidental Christian Europe had sunken into a mental 
lethargy, these Mohammedan seats of learning kept alive the old 
Egyptian and Greek methods of medical treatment, and that there 
were both physicians who prescribed and apothecaries who dis- 
pensed. Another matter of interest is the prominence given to 
pharmacy. The study of medicine was hindered by the belief that 
the soul of the dead did not leave the body at death, but gradually 
withdrew itself from the extremities to the chest, where it re- 
mained for some time. To make a dissection was therefore to tor- 



HISTORY OF THE PRESCRIPTION 259 

ture the soul. Then, when the dead were buried in their tombs 
they were visited by two angels, Nak-hir and Monker, who judged 
them. During this examination, the body had to stand erect and 
be perfect with no parts missing; therefore, religious prejudice 
and opinion made post-mortems or dissections impossible. But, as 
if to make up for this drawback, the Arabs placed correspondingly 
greater stress on the study of materia medica and pharmacy, the 
latter and alchemy being the favorite studies. The prevalence of 
such Arabian words as alcohol, elixir, julep, syrup, looch, roob, 
naphtha, camphor, bezoar, etc., in later pharmaceutical nomencla- 
ture attests the influence of these Moorish schools on this branch 
of study. 

The first dispensatory, entitled "Krabadin," was written by 
Sabor ebn Sahel, a director of the university at Dschondisabur, in 
the last half of the ninth century. Another celebrated work was 
the "Krabadin" of Abn'l Hassan, a Christian court physician 
under the Khalif of Bagdad in the twelfth century, which latter 
work became the legal authority on pharmaceutical matters. The 
Arabian drug stores stood under direct control of the government, 
and the quality of medicines, as well as the prices, were regu- 
lated by commissioners who visited and inspected the drug stores. 
In the eleventh century, the separation of physicians and pharma- 
cists was compulsory in the countries under control of the Moors. 
In this century, the school of Salerno, in Italy, under the control 
of the Arabian faculties, compelled its students to swear not to 
accept percentages from the druggists on their prescriptions. 

It is certain that drug stores for the dispensing of medicines on 
physicians' prescriptions were already to be found in Cordova 
and other large cities under the control of the Arabs previous to 
the twelfth century, and, as early as 1233, pharmacy laws were 
already passed in the two Sicilies. It is also pretty certain that by 
this time the superstitious aberrations that had characterized the 
first 600 or 700 years of the Christian era had dwindled to com- 
paratively insignificant proportions in the Christian portions of 
Europe, and that the prescriptions were no longer mere supersti- 
tious formulas, but directions for compounding material substances 
of more or less valuable medicinal character. 

In England, about the middle of the fourteenth century, the 
professions of physicians and pharmacists were already separated, 



260 THE PRESCRIPTION 

as appears from Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales," in which Chau- 
cer insinuates that physicians demanded percentages on their pre- 
scriptions. 

In Germany, the first drug store mentioned was at Muenster, in 
1267; another, a little later, is mentioned as being at Augsburg. 
In 1568, Hans Sachs wrote in his "True Descriptions of All Pro- 
fessions : ' ' 

"In my shop of drugs are stored 
Many things of sweet accord; 
Spices with sugar I combine, 
Enemas and purges I divine. 
To strengthen the weak and the sickly, 
Refreshing draughts I furnish quickly. 
All these, with utmost care, 
On prescriptions I prepare." 

In England, at this time, a druggist, by the name of Bulleyn, 
wrote of the apothecary : ' ' He is neither to decrease nor diminish 
the physician 's prescription. He is to meddle only in his own voca- 
tion, and to remember that his office is only to be the physician's 
cook." 

In France, one clause of an oath, which every apothecary was 
required to take, was to "never administer poisons nor recom- 
mend their administration, even to our greatest enemies; not to 
give drinks to produce abortion, without the advice of a physician ; 
also to execute accurately their prescriptions, without adding or 
diminishing anything contained in them, that they may be in every 
respect prepared 'secundum artem.' " 

In 1548, Charles V, at the congress of Augsburg, ordered an an- 
nual inspection of drug stores to control the quality of the medi- 
cines, as it had "come to our ears that deteriorated and spurious 
drugs are being dispensed on physicians' prescriptions." 

In Belgium, in the city of Bruges, in 1683, a law was passed for- 
bidding physicians to dispense their own remedies. 

In the seventeenth century, the oath demanded of a German 
drug clerk contained the clause: "That he will not deliberately 
change a physician's prescription." In this century (1643), 
Moscherosch explained the " 1$ " as follows : ' ' The direction on 
these papers are usually preceded by 'Rec, ' which, in fact, stands 
for per decern, and means that one prescription out of ten may 



HISTORY OF THE PRESCRIPTION 261 

help, or more properly speaking, that out of ten patients one 
may escape. ■ They are called patients when they get into the 
hands of the fraternity, for from that moment they are con- 
demned to suffer all the tortures of the damned." 

Since these times we have an unbroken record of the existence 
of two separate professions of medicine and pharmacy, and while 
at times and certain places physicians may have dispensed their 
own remedies, or druggists may have meddled with the visiting 
of and prescribing for patients, yet, in the main, physicians pre- 
scribed and pharmacists dispensed, as they do now, for several 
thousand years. In this connection, no account is taken of Chinese 
practice, which is like our own, and probably has been so for sev- 
eral thousand years, for their practice is so foreign to our own 
and to the civilizations of which we have spoken, that it is im- 
probable that Chinese customs had any influence on Egyptian, 
Greek or modern methods of practice. Nor is it likely that Chinese 
civilization had any forming influence on old Egyptian customs, 
as recent investigations tend rather to trace the origin of this 
wonderful people to a western origin, perhaps to Yucatan. 

It by no means follows, from what has been said, that the 
practice of physicians prescribing and pharmacists dispensing has 
been or is even now universal. 

In England, for instance, during the last few centuries and well 
into this century, the practitioner of medicine commonly was also 
the proprietor of the "chemist's shop" or drug store. This he 
visually left in charge of his assistant, who "read medicine" with 
him. If he himself prescribed for a patient in his shop, then he 
probably often combined the functions of physician and pharma- 
cist in one person and dispensed his own remedies. But if he 
was called away from his shop to visit a patient, and had to send 
the prescription back for his assistant to compound, the fact that 
the latter was not always an expert pharmacist made it necessary 
for him to write out the directions for compounding, or the "pre- 
scription," much more completely and in detail than would have 
been necessary if he could have sent his prescription to a properly 
qualified apothecary. In this manner grew up that astonishing 
method of prescribing, of which an example is given on page 137, 
and which was perhaps the highest perfection to which the pre- 
scription ever attained. Even now, the two professions are not 



262 THE PRESCRIPTION 

as entirely distinct in England as they are in some other countries, 
and it is not unusual to see advertisements in English pharmaceuti- 
cal journals for drug clerks who are experienced in counter-pre- 
scribing. 

In our country, probably, the majority of physicians outside of 
the larger cities dispense their own remedies and do not write 
prescriptions, but this is due to the conditions under which they 
exist. Sparsely settled neighborhoods often compel American 
country practitioners to ride many miles to their patients, and 
it would evidently be impracticable to send back to a drug store 
for the medicines, as it would cause too much trouble and delay. 
Many old and good practitioners in this country have, possibly, 
never in their lives written a prescription, and might, perhaps, be 
at a loss to know how to proceed to write one. 

Yet it would be obviously erroneous to say that English or 
American physicians do not write prescriptions because some, or 
perhaps even the greater number, do not do so. We must rather 
conclude that in all European countries, as well as in American 
countries inhabited by the descendants of Europeans, the practice 
of physicians writing prescriptions and sending them to drug 
stores to be compounded has been common for many centuries in 
all localities which are sufficiently densely populated to support 
both professions. 



APPENDIX 



ORIGIN OF THE SIGN fy. 

Some doubts having been expressed in a review of the second edi- 
tion of this book in one of the pharmaceutical journals, in regard 
to the statement that the little cross-line in 1^ is a relic of former 
superstitious invocations of Jupiter, I thought it of sufficient in- 
terest to present more fully to the consideration of the readers of 
this book the reasons which have influenced different writers to 
make such a statement. I, therefore, take the following, slightly 
modified so as to omit all controversial parts, from a letter con- 
tributed by me to the Chemist and Druggist, London, in the is- 
sue of July 25, 1891 : 

In tracing remains of former superstitions in modern customs 
it is not necessary to prove that they are used now with any knowl- 
edge of the original meaning, or that any traces of the old super- 
stitions still survive in any degree whatever. It is important that 
we should realize that the present use of symbols, rites or customs 
does not imply any general knowledge of their origins, as this may 
have been lost in the course of time, and we may continue to use 
them without any knowledge of their origins and with new, 
though often related, meanings. 

For instance, in ancient Babylon it was a religious duty of every 
woman to cohabit once in her life with a man other than her hus- 
band, in honor of the goddess Mylitta. When she went to the 
temple for this purpose, she signified it by taking a seat under 
a bough of mistletoe, which plant was sacred to the goddess. A 
man, seeing a woman "under the mistletoe," could then approach 
her, and after giving her money, which she offered on the altar of 
the goddess, he took her to one of the alcoves provided for the 
purpose and there had sexual connection with her. Traces of this 
still exist; one of the modern botanical names of the mistletoe is 
"Mylitta;" but when men now surprise girls or women "under 
the mistletoe" and demand the customary kiss, they do so without 

263 



264 THE PRESCRIPTION 

a knowledge of the origin of the custom, and without a knowledge 
that in ancient times they might have demanded coition. Similarly 
numberless present customs, symbols, ceremonies, rites etc., may 
be traced back to ancient beliefs and practices, while the public is 
ignorant of such connection between the now and the long ago. 

So it is not necessary to prove that our present ly was ever actu- 
ally and knowingly used as an invocation of Jupiter to prove that 



it had its origin in such invocation. Originally, no doubt, 



% 



was an invocation or conjuration of Jupiter when used on prescrip- 
tions, but it was only one of many forms of charms, conjurations 
or invocations used in this manner, as we are told by historians 
that they were used. There is, furthermore, no doubt whatever 
that the letter R is an abbreviation of "Recipe," but I do not be- 
lieve that the plain letter R was used as an abbreviation for 
"Recipe" in olden times. I think that if anyone attempted to 
prove from the history of medicine, or from any written source, 
that the original form of Iy was simply the letter R, he would 
find it impossible. I have come across no evidence to show that the 
plain letter R was so used previous to quite recent times, and 
while I believe that B^ was interpreted as an abbreviation for 
"Recipe" very early in the Christian era, it was formerly not 
written as a plain R. There is evidence, on the contrary, that it 
was not written as the simple letter even so late as the end of the 
eighteenth century. 

I believe that the character ly at the head of a prescription is a 
reminder of the former use of the Jupiter symbol as an invocation 
or conjuration; this statement refers to the character or sign 1^, 
not to the plain letter R, although in a remote way it may perhaps 
even be argued that the use of the word "Recipe" or its abbrevia- 
tion, "R," is a reminder, not particularly of the Jupiter invoca- 
tion, but of invocations in general, because it can be historically 
shown that prescriptions previous to the introduction of invoca- 
tions on prescriptions had no superscriptions, but began abruptly 
with an enumeration of the ingredients, as is now the practice in 
the United States Pharmacopoeia. 

As far as I can find, ty was a form of commencing a prescrip- 
tion which is centuries older than the use of either the word 
"recipe" or the simple letter R, and II was interpreted as 



APPENDIX 265 

"recipe" long before it was written that way; it is the object here 
to try to account for the little cross-stroke at the tail-end of the 
character I£, and to explain why this sign or character is used 
instead of the letter R at the beginning of the prescription. 

In Rome, at a quite early time, many of the physicians were 
Greeks or Jews, who had accepted the Christian faith. Under 
the Roman emperors the practice of medicine was under strict 
governmental control and supervision. During the persecutions 
under Nero, Tiberius, Severus and other Roman emperors, Chris- 
tians were cruelly put to death unless they saved themselves by 
making offerings or prayers to Jupiter and the other heathen gods 
in the temples, so that consent to offer or pray to Jupiter became 
a test to distinguish between Christians and good Roman citizens. 

An invocation to Jupiter may thus have come to be compulsory 
on the prescription to prove the adherence of the physician to the 
old state religion. Consider also that, as early as during the reign 
of Nero (scarcely later than A. D. 50) persons suspected of being 
Christians were forbidden to practice medicine, and that as late 
as under Julian, near the end of the fourth century, no Christian 
teacher was tolerated in the medical schools; and that under 
Theodosius the Christian method of healing by laying on of hands, 
anointing, and by prayers, was forbidden ; and that even as late 
as the sixth century it was not always safe to publicly avow one's 
religious belief, because now Christian, now Pagan physicians 
were persecuted and banished, according to the varying beliefs of 
the successive rulers. It was probably in times like these that 
physicians first found it convenient to have a sign which could be 
interpreted as an invocation of Jupiter, or as something else, when 
desired. Whether this was the reason or not, the historical fact is 
that Krinas introduced the astrological signs into medicine dur- 
ing the reign of Nero, or during the times of the fiercest and most 
cruel persecutions of the Christians. Magic, which had been 
practiced for a long time previously, developed into alchemy, and 
this science was quite extensively practiced in the fifth century. 

By the slight alteration of the Jupiter sign / , by adding the 

-•--— X:»~^- 

it is even now frequently written, and physicians could claim it 



266 THE PRESCRIPTION 

to be an invocation of Jupiter (the god), or the astrological sign 
for Jupiter (the planet), or the alchemistic symbol for Jupiter 
(the metal tin), or an abbreviation for "recipe," just as conven- 
ience or necessity required. 

When Christianity gradually displaced heathenism, the minor 
gods first disappeared and the fight gradually became narrowed 
down to a contest for supremacy between Jupiter (the old supreme 
god) and Jehovah (the new and "only" god). Men ceased to 
pray to or swear by Mercury, Mars or Venus, but they invoked 
Jupiter, and they swore "by Jove," and for purposes of strong 
affirmation, the God Jehovah has not succeeded in completely 
displacing Jupiter to this day, for we still swear "by Jove." 

Farther, I have no doubt that, as Jehovah crowded Jupiter 
more and more from his former high position, even though the 
necessity to use the symbol for Jupiter had ceased, some physi- 
cians who were half ashamed of their belief in the old god, and 
yet not prepared wholly to disavow it, added the little stroke to 



% hn ° 7L 



make X into ti , so that it might be considered to be the ab- 
breviation for "recipe". Or this may have been policy when pre- 
scribing for patients who still believed in the efficacy of the old 
Jupiter conjurations even though the physician had ceased to 
believe in it. Thus it could mean "Jupiter" to a believer and 
"recipe" to a sceptic. 

Moreover, the "Jupiter theory" best accounts for the use of 
the cross, of the Abraxas symbols, of such words as "abracad- 
abra", "cum deo", or "in nomine dei" ', etc., these signs and 
words having been introduced by the early Christians as pro- 
tests against the use of the symbols of Jupiter and the other 
deities of the Olympus. 

Or suppose the mixing of the two entirely dissimilar things, the 

ancient Jupiter sign / and the letter E to have been the result 
of ignorance ; or suppose even that the sign jf** ^ad keen out 

of use for a thousand years and that then some one who saw 
that it had been used at the head of prescriptions in former 
times without knowing why it was so used, should have used it 
and his example should have been followed until its use again be- 



APPENDIX 267 

came almost universal ; or suppose any other manner to account for 
the fusion of the two signs / and i) into /? , the con- 



t ud ^ w, l 



elusion must be the same. The symbol IJ would never have 
come into existence and would never have been used at the head 
of the prescription if it had not been derived from the symbol 



% 



which meant an invocation or conjuration of Jupiter. 



There is no other supposable reason why the letter R used at 
the opening of a prescription should have the little cross-line 
termination (Paris' "Cloven foot") when the letter R has no 
such form under any other circumstances whatever. 

This merging of the symbols must have occurred during the 
transition period from the belief in the old mythologies to the 
newer Christian religion, and therefore in the earlier centuries 
of the Christian era, and in a time when writings for temporary 
purposes, as prescriptions, letters and messages of ephemeral 
character were still inscribed with a stile on Avax tablets so that 
positive proof may be forever wanting, however convincingly 
logical reasoning and historical facts may establish the matter. 

To what extent this confusion between the Jupiter signs and 
the "Recipe" abbreviations was carried appears from the "Medi- 
cinisch-Chymisch und Alehemistisches Oraculum", printed in 
1783, from which the following symbols for "Jupiter" (tin) and 
"Recipe" are taken. 



Uecipe, J%>,J9c,tyi,^e 




Jupiter, T, <%> 7, \J,<£? 



t' 



268 THE PRESCRIPTION 



It is exceedingly curious to see that the sign for Jupiter, 



^ 



(also called the Zadkiel or Zedekiel symbol, Zadkiel having been 
supposed to be an angel of the god Jupiter), was used for "re- 
cipe" as late as 1783, and that the letter R was used as a symbol 
for "Jupiter" (tin) but not as an abbreviation for "recipe", 
which is now its most obvious meaning. Note the practical iden- 
tity of the first, fifteenth and seventeenth signs for Jupiter, and 
the fourth sign for "recipe"; the peculiar union of the second 
part of the sixteenth sign for Jupiter with the letter R in the 
first sign for "recipe"; the odd combination of the first, last part 
of the second and parts of the fourteenth signs for Jupiter to 
make the fifth sign for "recipe" — and there can be no doubt that 
the symbols for Jupiter and the signs for "recipe" and the let- 
ter R were at one time inextricably mixed, and even to a great 
extent synonymous; and I repeat again that there can be no 

reasonable doubt that ^ was derived from / and would 



never have existed as a sign at the head of the prescription if the 
latter sign had never been used as an invocation or conjuration 
of Jupiter. 

That I£ is not the simple letter R any child can see. Tine let- 
ter B is never written I£ anywhere else except at the beginning 
of a prescription. This fact demands an explanation which I at- 
tempt to give. It cannot have been due to accident; it is always 
more in accordance with our methods of thought to accept a fairly 
good explanation,' rather than to believe in accident. No other 
explanation for the peculiar facts I have shown has ever been 
proposed, for I consider as altogether too puerile the attempt to 
explain 1^ as being "Rp." The latter form is seldom used, is 
contrary to usual methods of abbreviating, and is so modern that 
it is apparent that it is derived from ^ , and not vice versa. 

To conclude, the explanations here given to account for the lit- 
tle final cross-line in I£ are fully as convincing as those given for 
hundreds of our customs, habits or beliefs which are traced back 
to former superstitions, beliefs, folk-lore, customs or habits, which 
are generally accepted as satisfactory, and I leave this subject to 
the judgment of my readers, whether there is or is not at least 
some foundation and room for the "Jupiter theory." 



INDEX 



A 

Abbreviations, 132 
Abradaeadabra, 245 
Abraxas Medals, 246 
Abstracts, 10 
Aceta, 32 
Acetomel, 22, 32 
"Ad" in Prescriptions, 1S2 
Address of physician on pre- 
scriptions, 166 
Adjectives, 91 

and nouns, list of, 10S 

cardinal, 106 

comparison of, 104 

declension of, 103 

numeral, 105 

ordinals, 106 
Adjuvants, 169, 172 
Adverbs, 91, 120 
Age, influence on action of medicines, 

188 
Age, effect on size of doses, 196 
Alchemirtic svmbols, 251 
"Amen," 246 

"Ana" or "aa, " meaning of, 92 
Apothecaries' Measures, 63 

signs of weight, origin of, 54 to 59 

weights, 54 

weights transposed to metric terms, 
78 
Apparent discrepancies in stating 

doses, 189 
Appendix, 263 
Approximate measures, 85 

table of, 85 
Aquae, 33 
Arabian influence on medical 

practice, 258 
Avoirdupois weights, 50 



Bambaeeutria. 29 
Base in prescriptions, 169, 171 
Baths, extemporaneous, 206 
Blanks for prescriptions, 162 
Bolus, 27 

extemporaneous, 218 
Books of Hippocrates, 242 



Books of Thot, 239 

Book, record of cases, 233 

Bougies. 30 



C 



Capsules, 17 
Cardinal adjectives, 106 
Case-book, 233 
Cataplasms, 28 

extemporaneous, 205 
Cerates, 17 

extemporaneous, 220 
Changes in color in mixtures, 203 
Charity patients, 165 
Chartae, 25 

extemporaneous, 220 
Chemical incompatibles, 200 
Children's doses, 188 
Chirography in prescriptions, 162 
Cito, meaning of, 165 
Classifications of prescriptions, 14 
Clavis sapientiae, 250 
Climate, influence of on action of 

medicines, 197 
Coated pills, 218 
Colatura, 19 
Collodions, 17 
Collyrium, 225 

Color changes in mixtures, 203 
Combinations of remedies, 183 
Comparison of adjectives, 104 
Compound prescriptions, 14 
Confections, 18 

extemporaneous, 212 
Conjunctions, 91 
Conserves, 18 

Conspergative for pills, 216 
Construction of prescriptions, 121, 
167 ' 

grammatical, 74 
Conversion of apothecaries' to metric 

weights, 78 
Conversion of metric to apothecaries' 

weights, 79 
Corrective, 169, 175 

D 

Date in prescriptions, 164 
David's Shield, 234 



269 



270 



INDEX 



Decimal point, use of, 80 
Declension, adjectives, 103 

fifth, 102 

first, 95 

fourth, 101 

nouns, 93 

second, 97 

third, 99 
Declensions, 92 
Decoctions, 18 

extemporaneous, 227 
Diluent, 169, 180 
Directive, 175 

Discrepancy, apparent, in doses, 189 
Discs, 32 
Doses, 187 

apparent discrepancies in stating, 
189 

for children, 188 

fractional, 188 

different preparations of same drug, 
190 

unusually large, 189 
Dragee, 26 
Druggists in middle ages, 259, 260 

E 

Easy method to learn metric system, 

74 
Eber's Papyrus, 239 
Egyptian medical practice, 240 

prescriptions, translation of, 236 
frontispiece, 236 

weights and measures, 48 
Electuaries, 38 

extemporaneous, 212 
Elixirs, 19 

Emergency Prescriptions, 165 
Emplastra, 27 

extemporaneous, 219 
Emulsions, 20 

extemporaneous, 228 
Enemas, extemporaneous, 231 
English, scientific nomenclature, 128 
Excessive doses, 189 
Excipients, 169, 178 

for pills, 214 
Exclamation mark (!) in prescrip- 
tions, 189 
Explosive prescriptions, 201 
Extemporaneous prescriptions, 161 

for baths, 206 

for cataplasms, 205 

for cerates, 220 

for charity patients, 165 

for confections, 212 

for decoctions, 227 

for emergency cases, 165 



Extemporaneous prescriptions— Cont 'd. 

for emulsions, 228 

for enemas, 231 

for eye-washes, 225 

for gargles, 225 

for infusions, 226 

for inhalations, 206 

for injections, 225 

for liniments, 231 

for lotions, 225 

for lozenges, 218 

for mixtures, 227 

for neutral mixtures, 225 

for ointments, 220 

for paints, 231 

for papers, 220 

for pillows, 205 

for pills, 212 

for plasters, 219 

for poor patients, 165 

for poultices, 205 

for powders in bulk, 208 

for powders in divided doses, 209 

for rectal injections, 231 

for repetitions, 162, 232 

for saturations, 225 

for solutions, 223 

for species, 204 

for suppositories, 219 

for tablets, 218 

for teas, 204 

for troches, 218 

for washes, 225 
Extracts. 20 

fluid, 21 

liquid. 23 

solid, 20 
Eye-washes, 225 

P 

Fifth declension, 102 
First declension, 95 
First Dispensatory, 259 
Fluid extracts, 21 
Fluid measures, 62 
Fomentations, 29 
Forms of formulas, 39 
Forms of medicines, 204 
Formulas by parts, 81 

b;^ percentage, 83 

by proportion, 84 

forms of, 39 
Fourth declension, 101 
Fractional doses, 188 
Fractions, how to write, 107 
French scientific nomenclature, 128 
Fresh herbs, tinctures of, 31 
Frontispiece, translation of, 236 



INDEX 



271 



G 

Gallipots, 24 

Gargle, extemporaneous, 225 
German scientific nomenclature, 128 
Glycerates, 21 
Glycerites, 21 
Glyceroles, 21 
Gnostic symbol, 234, 249 
Grain weights, using only, 59 
Grammatical construction of prescrip- 
tions, 74 
Granules, 26 

H 
Habits, influence of, 196 
Herbs, fresh, tinctures of, 31 
Hippocratic books, 242 
History of prescriptions, 237 
Honeys, 22 

How much to prescribe, 192 
How to prescribe, 191 
How to write fractions, 107 
Hydromel, 22 



Idiosyncrasy, influence of, 198 
Incompatibles, 198 

chemical, 200 

explosive, 201 

mechanical. 199 

organoleptic, 200 

therapeutic, 202 
Indeclinable nouns, 102 
Influences modifying action of medi- 
cines, 196 

of age, 188 

of climate, 197 

of personal habits, 196 

of idiosyncrasy, 198 

of race, 197 

of seasons, 197 

of sex, 196 

of time of day, 197 
Influence of Arabian teachings, 258 
Infusions, 22 

extemporaneous, 226 
Inhalations, extemporaneous, 206 
Injections, extemporaneous, 225 

rectal, 231 
Inscription in prescriptions, 168 
International weights and measures, 
64 

J 

Juices, 22 
Jupiter sign, 263 



Language in prescriptions, 
Large doses, 189 



Latin abbreviations, list of, 138 

advantage of, 88 

cases, 92 

nomenclature, 126 

phrases in prescriptions, 136 

phrases, list of, 138 
Linctus, 18 
Linear measure, 64 
Liniments, 23 

extemporaneous, 231 
Liquid extracts, 23 

measures, 62 

apothecaries', 63 

preparations, 221 
extemporaneous, 221 
Liquores, 28 

List of Latin words and phrases, 138 
List of nouns and adjectives, 108 
Litus, 231 
Looch, 18 

Lotion, extemporaneous, 225 
Lozenges," 31 

extemporaneous, 218 

M 

Magistral prescriptions, 162 
Masses, 24 
Mead, 22 

Measures, Apothecaries', 63 
transposing to metric, 78 

approximate, 85 

Egyptian, 49 

international, 64 

linear, 64 

liquid, 62 

metric, 67 
Mechanical incompatibles, 199 
Medicines, combinations of, 183 

forms of administering, 204 
Mel, 22 

Method to learn metric system, 74 
Metric prescriptions, 75 
Metric system, general considerations, 
64 

terms, 68 
Metric terms transposed to apothe- 
caries' terms, 79 
Metric weights and measures, 67 
Mineral waters, 33 
Mixtures, 24 

extemporaneous, 227 
neutral, extemporaneous, 225 
Mohammedan ceremonial mortar, 255, 

256 
Moxa, 32 
Mucilages, 24 



272 



INDEX 



N 



Name of patient in prescriptions, 165 
physician in prescription, 166 

N. F. preparations, 15 

Neutral mixtures, extemporaneous, 
225 

Nomenclature, 122 
Latin, 126 

Nouns and adjectives, list of, 108 

Nouns, indeclinable, 102 

Numeral adjectives, 105 

Numeration, system of, 43 

O 

"Official" preparations, 15 
"Officinal" preparations, 15 
Ointment jars, 24 
Ointments, 24 

extemporaneous, 220 
Oldberg's system of weights and 

measures, 46 
Oldest pharmacopoeia, 39 
Oleates, 25 
Oleoresins, 25 
Olla, 24 
Opodeldocs, 23 
Ordinal adjectives, 106 
Organoleptic incompatibles, 200 
Origin of apothecaries' signs of 

weights, 54 
Origin of R, 250, 263 
Oxymel, 22, 32 



"P" or "PP" in prescriptions, 165 
Pads, 29 

Paints, extemporaneous, 231 
Papers, 25 

extemporaneous, 220 
Papyrus of Ebers, 239 
Papyrus pharmacopoeia, 39 
Participles, 108 
' ' Parts ' ' in formulas, 81 
Parts of prescriptions, 121, 167 
Pastilles, 32 
Patent medicines, 34 

preparations, 34 
Patient's name on prescription, 165 
Percentage formulas, 83 
Permanent prescriptions, 14 
Pessaries, 30 

Pharmacists, early mention of, 240 
Pharmacopoeia, Papyrus, 39 
Pharmacopoeia! preparations, 15 
Phrases, list of Latin, 138 
Physician's address on prescriptions, 
166 



Pigmenta, 231 
Pillows, 29 

extemporaneous, 205 
Pills, 25 

coating with gold-leaf, 217 

conspergative for, 216 

excipients for, 214 

extemporaneous, 212 

gelatine-coated, 217 

sugar-coated, 217 
Plasters, 27 

extemporaneous, 219 
Pomades, 25 
Pomatum, 25 
Poor patients, 165 
Poultices, 28 

extemporaneous, 205 
Powders, 27 

extemporaneous, 207 

in bulk, 208 

in cachets, 211 

in capsules, 211 

in divided doses, 209 

in wafers, 211 
Preparations, liquid, 221 

patent, 34 

proprietary, 34 

solid, 204 

special, 204 
Prepositions, 91 
Prescribing, 191 
Prescription blanks, 162 
Prescriptions, ancient Egyptian, 240* 

classification of, 14 

compound, 14 

construction of, 121, 167 

cuneiform, 241 

date in, 164 

definition of, 13 

emergency, 165 

explosive, 201 

extemporaneous. 14, 161 

for baths, 206' 

for cataplasms, 205 

for cerates, 220 

for charity patients, 165 

for confections, 212 

for decoctions, 227 

for emergency cases, 165 

for emulsions, 228 

for enemas, 231 

for eye-washes, 225 

for gargles, 225 

for infusions, 226 

for inhalations, 206 

for injections, 225 

for liniments, 231 

for lotions, 225 



INDEX 



273 



Prescriptions — Cont 'd. 

for lozenges, 218 

for mixtures, 227 

for neutral mixtures, 225 

for ointments, 220 

for paints, 231 

for papers, 220 

for pillows, 205 

for pills, 212 

for plasters, 219 

for poor patients, 165 

for poultices, 205 

for powders in bulk, 208 

for powders in divided doses, 209 

for rectal injections, 231 

for repititions, 162, 232 

for saturations, 225 

for solutions. 223 

for species, 204 

for suppositories, 219 

for tablets, 218 

for teas, 204 

for troches, 21S 

for washes, 225 

grammatical construction, 74 

Latin in, 88 

magistral. 162 

metric, 75 

not to be repeated, 166 

official, 15 

officinal, 15 

parts of, 121, 167 

permanent, 14 

physician 's address in, 166 

repeating, 162, 232 

simple, 14 

writing, 162 
Proprietary preparations, 14 
Proportion formulas, 84 
Pulveres, 27 

extemporaneous, 209 
Pulvis, 27 

extemporaneous, 207 

Q 

"q. s. " or "quantum satis," 121 
Quantities to prescribe, 192 

E 

Tt, origin of, 250, 263 
Ttace, influence of, on action of medi- 
cines, 197 
Record of cases, 233 
"Rectal injections, extemporaneous, 23.1 
Rectal suppositories, 30 

extemporaneous, 219 
Remedies, combinations of, 183 
Repeating prescriptions, 166, 232 
Resins, 28 



Roob, 23 

Rotulae, 32 

Rules for converting apothecaries' 

terms to metric terms, 72, 

78 
for converting metric terms to 

apothecaries' terms, 79 

S 

iSaponaments, 23 

Saturations, extemporaneous, 225 

Scientific nemenclature, English, 128 

French, 128 

German, 128 
Seasons, influence of on action of 

medicines, 197 
Second declension, 97 
Sex. effect on action of medicines, 

196 
Signature in prescriptions, 187 
Simple -nrescriptions, 14 
Sizes of prescription vials, apothe- 
caries', 221 

metric, 75 
Solid extracts, 20 
Solid preparations, extemporaneous, 

204 
Solutions, 28 

extemporaneous, 223 
Special preparations, 204 
Species, 28 

extemporaneous, 204 
Specifying in prescriptions, 36 
Spirits', 30 

Subscription in prescriptions, 187 
Suceus, 22 

Superscription in prescriptions, 167 
Superstition in medicine, 244 
Suppositories, 30 

extemporaneous 219 

rectal, 30 

urethral, 30 

vaginal, 30 
"Sympathetic" remedies, 256 
Syrups, 30 
System of numeration, 43 



Table of approximate measures, 85 

equivalents, apothecaries' and met- 
ric, 78 

metric and apothecaries ', 79 
Tablets, 32 

extemporaneous, 218 
Tabulae, 32 
Talismans, 244 
Teas, 28 

extemporaneous, 204 



274 



INDEX 



Terms of metric system, 68 

Therapeutic incompatibles, 202 

Third declension, 99 

Thot, books of, 239 

Time of day, influence on action of 

medicines, 197 
Tinctures, 30 

of fresh herbs, 31 
Tolerance of medicines, 198 
Translation of frontispiece, 236 
Transposing apothecaries' to metric 
terms, 78 

metric to apothecaries' terms, 79 
Triturations, 31 
Troches, 31 

extemporaneous, 218 
Troy weights, 52 

U 

Unguenta, 24 

extemporaneous, 220 
Unusually large doses, 189 
Urethral suppositories, 30 
Use of decimal point in metric pre- 
scriptions, 80 
Using only grain weights, 59 
Vaginal suppositories, 30 
Vehicle in prescriptions, 181 
Verbs, Latin, in prescriptions, 118 



Vials, sizes of apothecaries', 221 

metric 75 
Vina. 33 
Vinegars, 32 

W 

Washes extemporaneous, 225 
Waters, 33 

mineral, 33 
Weights and measures, 43 

apothecaries', 54 

avoirdupois, 50 

Egyptian, 48 

international, 64 

metric, 67 

Oldberg's system, 46 
Weights, apothecaries', 54 

avoirdupois, 50 

grains only, 59 

metric, 69 

Oldberg's system, 46 

transposing apothecaries' to met- 
ric, 78 

transposing metric to apothecaries', 
79 

Trov, 52 
Wines', 33 

Word-charms, 245, 255 - 
Writing in prescriptions, 162 
Writing prescriptions, 162 



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